[Transcriber’s note: Sidenotes are shown enclosed in diamond symbols and multiple notes are separated by bars, as shown: ♦Note 1 | Note 2♦.]
THE
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE
VOL. I.
LONDON: PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET
THE
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
OF
EUROPE
BY
EDWARD A. FREEMAN, D.C.L., LL.D.
HONORARY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. I.—TEXT
LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
1881
All rights reserved
PREFACE.
It is now several years since this book was begun. It has been delayed by a crowd of causes, by a temporary loss of strength, by enforced absence from England, by other occupations and interruptions of various kinds. I mention this only because of the effect which I fear it has had on the book itself. It has been impossible to make it, what a book should, if possible, be, the result of one continuous effort. The mere fact that the kindness of the publishers allowed the early part to be printed some years back has, I fear, led to some repetition and even contradiction. A certain change of plan was found unavoidable. It proved impossible to go through the whole volume according to the method of the earlier chapters. Instead of treating Europe as a whole, I found it needful to divide it into several large geographical groups. The result is that each of the later chapters has had to go over again some small amount of ground which had been already gone over in the earlier chapters. In some cases later lights have led to some changes of view or expression. I have marked these, as far as I could, in the Additions and Corrections. If in any case I have failed to do so, the later statement is the one which should be relied on.
I hope that I have made the object of the work clear in the Introductory Chapter. It is really a very humble one. It aims at little more than tracing out the extent of various states at different times, and at attempting to place the various changes in their due relation to one another and to their causes. I am not, strictly speaking, writing history. I have little to do with the internal affairs of any country. I have looked at events mainly with reference to their effect on the European map. This has led to a reversal of what to many will seem the natural order of things. In a constitutional history of Europe, our own island would claim the very first place. In my strictly geographical point of view, I believe I am right in giving it the last.
I of course assume in the reader a certain elementary knowledge of European history, at least as much as may be learned from my own General Sketch. Names and things which have been explained there I have not thought it needful to explain again. I need hardly say that I found myself far more competent to deal with some parts of the work than with others. No one can take an equal interest in, or have an equal knowledge of, all branches of so wide a subject. Some parts of the book will represent real original research; others must be dealt with in a far less thorough way, and will represent only knowledge got up for the occasion. In such cases the reader will doubtless find out the difference for himself. But I have felt my own deficiencies most keenly in the German part. No part of European history is to me more attractive than the early history of the German kingdom as such. No part is to me less attractive than the endless family divisions and unions of the smaller German states.
In the Slavonic part I have found great difficulty in following any uniform system of spelling. I consulted several Slavonic scholars. Each gave me advice, and each supported his own advice by arguments which I should have thought unanswerable, if I had not seen the arguments in support of the wholly different advice given me by the others. When the teachers differ so widely, the learner will, I hope, be forgiven, if the result is sometimes a little chaotic. I have tried to write Slavonic names so as to give some approach to the sound, as far as I know it. But I fear that I have succeeded very imperfectly.
In such a crowd of names, dates, and the like, there must be many small inaccuracies. In the case of the smaller dates, those which do not mark the great epochs of history, nothing is easier than to get wrong by a year or so. Sometimes there is an actual difference of statement in different authorities. Sometimes there is a difference in the reckoning of the year. For instance, In what year was Calais lost to England? We should say 1558. A writer at the time would say 1557. Then again there is no slip of either pen or press so easy as putting a wrong figure, and, except in the case of great and obvious dates, or again when the mistake is very far wrong indeed, there is no slip of pen or press so likely to be passed by in revision. And again there is often room for question as to the date which should be marked. In recording a transfer of territory from one power to another, what should be the date given? The actual military occupation and the formal diplomatic cession are often several years apart. Which of these dates should be chosen? I have found it hard to follow any fixed rule in such matters. Sometimes the military occupation seems the most important point, sometimes the diplomatic cession. I believe that in each case where a question of this sort might arise, I could give a reason for the date which has been chosen; but here there has been no room to enter into discussions. I can only say that I shall be deeply thankful to any one who will point out to me any mistakes or seeming mistakes in these or any other matters.
The maps have been a matter of great difficulty. I somewhat regret that it has been found needful to bind them separately from the text, because this looks as if they made some pretensions to the character of an historical atlas. To this they lay no claim. They are meant simply to illustrate the text, and in no way enter into competition either with such an elaborate collection as that of Spruner-Menke, or even with collections much less elaborate than that. Those maps are meant to be companions in studying the history of the several periods. Mine do not pretend to do more than to illustrate changes of boundary in a general way. It was found, as the work went on, that it was better on the whole to increase the number of maps, even at the expense of making each map smaller. There are disadvantages both ways. In the maps of South-Eastern Europe, for instance, it was found impossible to show the small states which arose in Greece after the Latin conquest at all clearly. But this evil seemed to be counterbalanced by giving as many pictures as might be of the shifting frontier of the Eastern Empire towards the Bulgarian, the Frank, and the Ottoman.
In one or two instances I have taken some small liberties with my dates. Thus, for instance, the map of the greatest extent of the Saracen dominion shows all the countries which were at any time under the Saracen power. But there was no one moment when the Saracen power took in the whole extent shown in the map. Sind and Septimania were lost before Crete and Sicily were won. But such a view as I have given seemed on the whole more instructive than it would have been to substitute two or three maps showing the various losses and gains at a few years’ distance from one another.
I have to thank a crowd of friends, including some whom I have never seen, for many hints, and for much help given in various ways. Such are Professor Pauli of Göttingen, Professor Steenstrup of Copenhagen, Professor Romanos of Corfu, M. J.-B. Galiffe of Geneva, Dr. Paul Turner of Budapest, Professor A. W. Ward of Manchester, the Rev. H. F. Tozer, Mr. Ralston, Mr. Morfill, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and my son-in-law Arthur John Evans, whose praise is in all South-Slavonic lands.
SOMERLEAZE, WELLS:
December 16, 1880.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
Definition of Historical Geography 1
Its relation to kindred studies 1-2
Distinction between geographical and political names 3-5
§ 1. Geographical Aspect of Europe.
Boundaries of Europe and Asia 5-6
General geography of the two continents—the great peninsulas 6-7
§ 2. Effects of Geography on History.
Beginnings of history in the southern peninsulas—characteristics of Greece and Italy 7-8
Advance and extent of the Roman dominion; the Mediterranean lands, Gaul, and Britain 8-9
Effects of the geographical position of Germany, France, Spain, Scandinavia, Britain 9-10
Effect of geographical position on the colonizing powers 10
Joint working of geographical position and national character 11
§ 3. Geographical Distribution of Races.
Europe an Aryan continent—non-Aryan remnants and latter settlements 12
Fins and Basques 13
Order of Aryan settlements; Greeks and Italians 13
Celts, Teutons, Slaves, Lithuanians 14-15
Displacement and assimilation among the Aryan races 16
Intrusion of non-Aryans; Saracens 16
Turanian intrusions; Bulgarians; Magyars; Ottomans; differences in their history 17
CHAPTER II.
GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.
§ 1. The Eastern or Greek Peninsula.
Geographical and historical characteristics of the Eastern, Greek, or Byzantine peninsula 18-19
Its chief divisions; Thrace and Illyria; their relations to Greece 19-20
Greece Proper and its peninsulas 20-21
Peloponnêsos 21
§ 2. Insular and Asiatic Greece.
Extent of Continuous Hellas 21
The Islands 22
Asiatic Greece 22-23
§ 3. Ethnology of the Eastern Peninsula.
The Greeks and the kindred races 23
Illyrians, Albanians, or Skipetar 24
Inhabitants of Epeiros, Macedonia, Sicily, and Italy 24
Pelasgians 24-25
The Greek Nation 25
§ 4. Earliest Geography of Greece and the Neighbouring Lands.
Homeric Greece: its extent and tribal divisions 25-27
Use of the name Epeiros 26
The cities: their groupings unlike those of later times; supremacy of Mykênê 27
Extent of Greek colonization in Homeric times 28
The Asiatic catalogue 28
Probable kindred of all the neighbouring nations 28
Phœnician and Greek settlements in the islands 28
§ 5. Change from Homeric to Historic Greece.
Changes in Peloponnêsos; Dorian and Aitolian settlements 29
Later divisions of Peloponnêsos 29-30
Change in Northern Greece; Thessaly 30
Akarnania and the Corinthian colonies 31
Foundation and destruction of cities 31
§ 6. The Greek Colonies.
The Ægæan and Asiatic colonies 32-33
Early greatness of the Asiatic cities; Milêtos 32
Their submission to Lydians and Persians 32-33
The Thracian colonies; abiding greatness of Thessalonikê and Byzantion 33
More distant colonies; Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia 33-34
Parts of the Mediterranean not colonized by the Greeks; Phœnician settlements; struggles in Sicily and Cyprus 34-35
Greek colonies in Africa, Gaul, and Spain 35
Colonies on the Euxine; abiding greatness of Cherson and Trebizond 36
Beginning of the artificial Greek nation 36
§ 7. Growth of Macedonia and Epeiros.
Growth of Macedonia; Philip; Alexander and the Successors; effects of their conquests 37
Epeiros under Pyrrhos; Athamania 37
The Macedonian kingdoms; Egypt; Syria 38
Independent states in Asia; Pergamos 38
Asiatic states; advance of Greek culture 39
Free cities; Hêrakleia 39
Sinôpê; Bosporos 39
§ 8. Later Geography of Independent Greece.
The Confederations; Achaia, Aitolia; smaller confederations 40
Macedonian possessions 40
First Roman possessions east of the Hadriatic 40
Progress of Roman conquest in Macedonia and Greece 41
Special character of Greek history 42
CHAPTER III.
FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Meanings of the name Italy; its extent under the Roman commonwealth 43
Characteristics of the Italian peninsula; the great islands 44
§ 1. The Inhabitants of Italy and Sicily.
Ligurians and Etruscans 45
The Italian nations; Latins and Oscans 45-46
Other nations; Iapygians; Gauls; Veneti; use of the name Venetia 46-47
Greek colonies in Italy; Kymê and Ankôn 47
The southern colonies; their history 47-48
Inhabitants of Sicily; Sikanians and Sikels 48
Phœnician and Greek settlements; rivalry of Aryan and Semitic powers 48-49
§ 2. Growth of the Roman Power in Italy.
Gradual conquest of Italy; different positions of the Italian states 49
Origin of Rome; its Latin element dominant 49-50
Early Latin dominion of Rome 50
Conquest of Veii; more distant wars 50
Incorporation of the Italian states 50-51
§ 3. The Western Provinces.
Nature of the Roman provinces 51
Eastern and Western provinces 52
First Roman possessions in Sicily; conquest of Syracuse 53
State of Sicily; its Greek civilization 53
Sardinia and Corsica 53-54
Cisalpine Gaul 54-55
Liguria; Venetia; Istria; foundation of Aquileia 55
Spain; its inhabitants; Iberians; Celts; Greek and Phœnician colonies 55-56
Conquest and Romanization of Spain 56-57
Transalpine Gaul; the Province 57
Conquests of Cæsar; threefold division of Gaul 57-58
Boundaries of Gaul purely geographical; survival of nomenclature 57-58
Roman Africa; restoration of Carthage 58-60
§ 4. The Eastern Provinces.
Contrast between the Eastern and Western provinces; Greek civilization in the East 60
Distinctions among the Eastern provinces; boundary of Tauros 60-61
The Illyrian provinces; kingdom of Skodra; conquest of Dalmatia and Istria 62-63
The outlying Greek lands: Crete, Cyprus, Kyrênê 63
The Asiatic provinces; province of Asia; Mithridatic War; independence of Lykia 64
Syria; Palestine 65
Rome and Parthia 65
Conquest of Egypt; the Roman Peace 66
§ 5. Conquests under the Empire.
Conquests from Augustus to Nero; incorporation of vassal kingdoms 66-67
Attempted conquest of Germany; frontiers of Rhine and Danube; conquests on the Danube 67-68
Attempt on Arabia 68
Annexation of Thrace and Byzantion 68
Conquest of Britain; the wall 69
Conquests of Trajan; his Asiatic conquests surrendered by Hadrian 70
Arabia Petræa 70
Dacia; change of the name 70-71
Roman, Greek, and Oriental parts of the Empire 71
CHAPTER IV.
THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
§ 1. The Later Geography of the Empire.
Changes under the Empire; loss of old divisions 73
New divisions of Italy under Augustus 74
Division of the Empire under Diocletian 74-75
The four Prætorian Prefectures 75
Prefecture of the East; its character 75-76
Its dioceses; the East; Egypt, Asia, Pontos 76
Diocese of Thrace; provinces of Scythia and Europa 76-77
Great cities of the Eastern prefecture 77
Prefecture of Illyricum; position of Greece 77-78
Dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia; province of Achaia 78
Prefecture of Italy; its extent 78
Dioceses of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa; greatness of Carthage 79
Prefecture of Gaul 79
Diocese of Spain; its African territory 79
Dioceses of Gaul and Britain; province of Valentia 79-80
§ 2. The Division of the Empire.
Change in the position of Rome 80
Division of the Empire, A.D. 395 81
Rivalry with Parthia and Persia inherited by the Eastern Empire 81-82
Teutonic invasions; no Teutonic settlements in the East 82-83
§ 3. The Teutonic Settlements within the Empire.
The Wandering of the Nations 83
New nomenclature of the Teutonic nations 83-84
Warfare on the Rhine and Danube; Roman outposts beyond the rivers 84
Teutonic confederations; Marcomanni; Quadi 84-85
Franks, Alemans, Saxons; Germans within the Empire 85-86
Beginning of national kingdoms 86
Loss of the Western provinces of Rome 86
Settlements within the Empire by land and by sea 87
Franks, Burgundians, Goths, Vandals 87-88
Early history of the Goths 88-89
The West-Gothic kingdom in Gaul and Spain 89-90
Alans, Suevi, Vandals; the Vandals in Africa 89-90
The Franks; use of the name Francia 91
Alemans, Thuringians; Low-Dutch tribes 91
The Frankish dominions; Roman Germany Teutonized afresh; peculiar position of the Franks 91-93
Celtic remnant in Armorica or Britanny 93
The Burgundians; various uses of the name Burgundy; separate history of Provence 93-94
Inroads of the Huns; battle of Châlons; origin of Venice 94
Nominal reunion of the Empire in 476 94
Reigns of Odoacer and Theodoric 94-95
§ 4. Settlement of the English in Britain.
Withdrawal of the Roman troops from Britain 95
Special character of the English Conquest of Britain 96
The Low-Dutch settlers, Angles, Saxons, Jutes; origin of the name English 97
The Welsh and Scots 98
§ 5. The Eastern Empire.
Comparison of the two Empires; no Teutonic settlements in the Eastern 98
The Tetraxite Goths 98
Rivalry with Parthia continued under the revived Persian kingdom 98-99
Position of Armenia 99
Momentary conquests of Trajan 99
Conquests of Marcus, Severus, and Diocletian; cessions of Jovian 100
Division of Armenia; Hundred Years’ Peace 100
Summary 101-102
CHAPTER V.
THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.
§ 1. The Reunion of the Empire.
Continued existence of the Empire; position of the Teutonic kings 103
Extent of the Empire at the accession of Justinian 104
Conquests of Justinian; their effects 104-106
Provence ceded to the Franks 105
§ 2. Settlement of the Lombards in Italy.
Early history of the Lombards; Gepidæ, Avars 106-107
Possibility of Teutonic powers on the Danube 107
Lombard conquest of Italy; its partial nature; territory kept by the Empire 107-108
§ 3. Rise of the Saracens.
Loss of the Spanish province by the Empire 108
Wars of Chosroes and Heraclius 109
Extension of Roman power on the Euxine 109-110
Relation of the Arabs to Rome and Persia 110
Union of the Arabs under Mahomet; renewed Aryan and Semitic strife 110
Loss of the Eastern and African provinces of Rome 111
Saracen conquest of Persia 111
Conquest of Spain; Saracen province in Gaul 111-112
Effects of the Saracen conquests; distinction between the Latin, Greek, and Eastern provinces 112
Greatest extent of Saracen provinces 112
Loss of Septimania 113
§ 4. Settlements of the Slavonic Nations.
Movements of the Slaves; Avars, Magyars, &c. 113-114
Geographical separation of the Slaves 114
Analogy between Teutons and Slaves 114
Slavonic settlements under Heraclius; the Dalmatian cities; displacement of the Illyrians 115
Slavonic settlements in Greece 115-116
Settlement of the Bulgarians 116
Curtailment of the Empire; moral influence of Constantinople 116-117
§ 5. The Transfer of the Western Empire to the Franks.
Conquests of the Franks in Germany and Gaul 117-119
Their position in Germany, Northern Gaul, and Southern Gaul 119-120
Division of the Frankish dominion; Austria and Neustria 120-121
Use of the name Francia; Teutonic and Latin Francia; modern forms of the name 121
The Karlings; their conquests; German character of their power 121-122
The great powers of the eighth century: Romans, Franks, Saracens 122
Character of the Caliphate; its divisions 122
Relations between the Franks and the Empire 123
Lombard conquest of the Exarchate 123
Conquest of the Lombards by Charles the Great; he holds Lombardy as a separate kingdom 123
His Roman title of Patrician 123-124
Effects of his Imperial coronation; final division of the Empire 124
The two Empires become severally German and Greek; their separation and rivalry 124-125
The two Empires and the two Caliphates 125-126
Extent of the Carolingian Empire 126
Conquest of Saxony; dealings with Scandinavia; frontier of the Eider 126-127
Relations with the Slaves; overthrow of the Avars 127
The Spanish March 128
Divisions of the Empire; kingdoms of Aquitaine and Italy 128
Use of the names Francia, Gallia, Germania 129
§ 6. Northern Europe.
Lands beyond the Empire: Scandinavia and Britain 129
Stages of English Conquest in Britain; Teutonic and Celtic states 129-130
Supremacy of Wessex 130
Denmark; Norway; Sweden 130-131
Different directions of the Scandinavian settlements 131
Summary 131-133
Religious changes 132
Note on the Slavonic settlements 133
CHAPTER VI.
THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.
§ 1. The Division of the Frankish Empire.
Break-up of the Frankish power; origin of the states of modern Europe 134
Kingdoms of Italy and Aquitaine 134
Division of 817 135
Union of Neustria and Aquitaine; first glimpses of modern France 135
Division of Verdun; Eastern and Western Francia; Lotharingia; the Western Kingdom or Karolingia 137
Middle Kingdom or Burgundy 137
Union under Charles the Fat; division on his deposition 137
No formal titles used; various names for the German Kingdom 138
Connexion between the German Kingdom and the Roman Empire 139
Extent of the German Kingdom; its duchies and marks 139-140
Lotharingia 140-141
Extent of the Western Kingdom 141
Its great fiefs; Aquitaine; France; Normandy cut off from France 142
Origin of the French kingdom and nation; union of the duchy of France with the Western kingdom 143
New use of the word France; title of Rex Francorum 143-144
Paris the kernel of France 144
Various uses of the name Burgundy 144
The French Duchy; the Middle Kingdom; Transjurane and Cisjurane Burgundy 144-145
Great cities of the Burgundian kingdom 145
Separation of Burgundy from the Frankish kingdom; its union with Germany 145-146
Its later history; mainly swallowed up by France, but partly represented by Switzerland 146
Kingdom of Italy; its extent; separate principalities 146-147
Italy represents the Lombard kingdom; Milan its capital 147
Abeyance of the Western Empire; its restoration by Otto the Great; the three Imperial kingdoms 147-148
Rivalry between France and the Empire 148
§ 2. The Eastern Empire.
Rivalry of the Eastern and Western Empires and Churches; Greek character of the Eastern Empire; fluctuations in its extent 149
The Themes; Asiatic Themes 149-151
The European Themes; Hellas; Lombardy; Sicily 151-152
Older Greek names supplanted by new ones 151
Character of the European and Asiatic dominion of the Empire; its supremacy by sea 152
Losses and gains; Crete; Sicily; Italy; Dalmatia; Greece; Syria; Bulgaria; Cherson 152-153
Greatness of the Empire under Basil the Second 153
§ 3. Origin of the Spanish Kingdoms.
Special position of Spain; the Saracen conquest 153-154
Growth of the Christian states 154-155
Castile; Aragon; Portugal 155
Break-up of the Western Caliphate 156
§ 4. Origin of the Slavonic States.
Slavonic and Turanian invasions of the Eastern Empire; Bulgarians; Magyars; Great Moravia 156-157
Special character of the Hungarian kingdom; effects of its religious connexion with the West 157
The Northern and Southern Slaves split asunder by the Magyars 158
The South-eastern Slaves 158
The North-western Slaves; Bohemia; Poland 159
Special position of Russia 159
§ 5. Northern Europe.
Scandinavian settlements 159-160
Growth of the kingdom of England 160
The Danish invasions; division between Ælfred and Guthrum; Bernicia; Cumberland 161
Second West-Saxon advance; Wessex grows into England; submission of Scotland and Strathclyde; Cumberland and Lothian 162
Use of the Imperial titles by the English kings; Northern Empire of Cnut; England finally united by the Norman Conquest 162-163
Summary 163-165
CHAPTER VII.
THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.
Permanence of ecclesiastical divisions; they preserve earlier divisions; case of Lyons and Rheims 166-167
Patriarchates, Provinces, Dioceses 167
Bishoprics within and without the Empire 167-168
§ 1. The Great Patriarchates.
The Patriarchates suggested by the Prefectures 168
Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem 168-169
Later Patriarchates 169-170
§ 2. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Italy.
Great numbers and smaller importance of the Italian bishoprics 170
Rivals of Rome; Milan, Aquileia, Ravenna 171
The immediate Roman province; other metropolitan sees 171-172
§ 3. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul and Germany.
Gaulish and German dioceses 172
Provinces of Southern Gaul; position of Lyons 172-173
New metropolitan sees; Toulouse, Alby, Avignon, Paris; comparison of civil and ecclesiastical divisions 174
Provinces of Northern Gaul and Germany; history of Mainz 178-179
The archiepiscopal electors; other German provinces; Salzburg, Bremen, Magdeburg 176-177
Modern arrangements in France, Germany, and the Netherlands 177
§ 4. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Spain.
Peculiarities of Spanish ecclesiastical geography; effects of the Saracen conquest 178
Gothic and later dioceses; neglect of the Pyrenæan barrier 178-179
§ 5. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of the British Islands.
Analogy between Britain and Spain 179
Tribal nature of the Celtic episcopate 179-180
Scheme of Gregory the Great; the two English provinces; relation of Scotland to York 180-181
Foundation of the English sees; territorial bishoprics 181
Canterbury and its suffragan; effects of the Norman Conquest 181-182
Province of York; Scotland and Ireland 182-183
§ 6. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Northern and Eastern Europe.
The Scandinavian provinces; Lund, Upsala, Trondhjem 184
Poland and neighbouring lands; Gnezna, Riga, Leopol 184-185
Provinces of Hungary and Dalmatia 186
CHAPTER VIII.
THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.
The German Kingdom; its relation to the Western Empire; falling off of Italy and Burgundy 188-190
Loss of territory by the German kingdom; its extension to the north-east 190-191
Geographical contrast of the earlier and the later Empire 191
§ 1. The Kingdom of Germany.
Changes of boundaries and nomenclature in Germany; Saxony; Bavaria; Austria; Burgundy; Prussia 191-192
Extent of the Kingdom; fluctuations of its western boundary; Lorraine; Elsass; the left bank of the Rhine 192-194
Fluctuations on the Burgundian frontier; union of Burgundy with the Empire 194
Frontier of Germany and Italy; union of the crowns 195
Northern and eastern advance of the Empire; the marks 195
Hungarian frontier; marks of Austria, Carinthia, and Carniola 196
Danish frontier; Danish mark; boundary of the Eider 196
The Slavonic frontier 197
The Saxon mark; Slavonic princes of Mecklenburg, Lübeck; the Hansa 198-199
Marks of Brandenburg, Lausitz, and Meissen 199
Bohemia and Moravia 199
Polish frontier; Pomerania, Silesia 200
Germanization of the Slavonic lands 200-201
Internal geography; growth of the principalities 201
Growth of the marchlands; Brandenburg or Prussia, and Austria; analogies elsewhere 202
Decline of the duchies; end of the Gauverfassung 202
Growth of the House of Austria; separation of Switzerland and the Netherlands 203
The Circles 203
Powers holding lands within and without the Empire; Austria; Sweden; Brandenburg and Prussia; Hannover and Great Britain 203-204
Dissolution of the kingdom; the Confederation 204
Greatness of Prussia and Austria 204
The new Empire 204
Germany under the Saxon and Frankish kings; vanishing of Francia; analogy of Wessex 205-206
Changes in the twelfth century; beginning of Brandenburg and Austria; the duchies and the circles 206-207
Duchy of Saxony; its divisions and growth 207
Break-up of the duchy; Westfalia; the new Saxony 207
Duchy of Brunswick; electorate and kingdom of Hannover 208
The new Saxony; Lauenburg; the Saxon Electorate 208-209
The North Mark of Saxony or Mark of Brandenburg 209
House of Hohenzollern; union of Brandenburg and Prussia 210
Advances in Pomerania, Westfalia, &c. 210
German character of the Prussian state; its contrast with Austria; use of the name Prussia 210-211
Conquest of Silesia; Polish acquisitions of Prussia; East Friesland 211-212
Saxon Possessions of Denmark and Sweden 212-213
Free cities of Saxony; the Hansa; the cities and the bishoprics 213-214
Duchy of Francia; held by the bishops of Würzburg; the Franconian circle 214
The Rhenish circles; Hessen; Bamberg; Nürnberg; the ecclesiastical states on the Rhine 214-215
Palatinate of the Rhine; Upper Palatinate 215
Bavaria; its relations towards the Palatinate and towards Austria 215
Archbishopric of Salzburg 215
Lotharingia; falling off from the Empire; the later Lorraine and Elsass 216
Swabia; ecclesiastical powers 216
Swabian lands of the Confederates 216
Baden and Württemberg 216
Circle of Austria; house of Habsburg 217
Extent of its German lands; Tyrol; Elsass; loss of Swabian lands 217
Bohemia and its dependencies 217
Trent and Brixen 217
Circle of Burgundy; not purely German; its origin 218
§ 2. The Confederation and Empire of Germany.
Germany changes from a kingdom to a confederation 218
The Bund; the new Confederation and Empire; the Empire still federal 219
Wars of the French Revolution; loss of the left bank of the Rhine 220
Suppression of free cities and ecclesiastical states; new electorates 220
Peace of Pressburg; new kingdoms; cessions made by Austria 221
Title of ‘Emperor of Austria;’ Confederation of the Rhine; end of the Western Empire 221
German territories of Denmark and Sweden 221-222
Losses of Prussia and Austria; French annexations 222
Kingdoms of Saxony and Westfalia; Grand duchy of Frankfurt 222
Germany wiped out of the map 222
Losses of Prussia; Danzig; duchy of Warsaw 222-223
The German Confederation; princes holding lands within and without the Confederation; kingdom of Hanover 223
Increase of Prussian territory; dismemberment of Saxony 224
Lands recovered by Austria; German possessions of Denmark and the Netherlands; Sweden withdraws from Germany 224-225
Comparison of Prussia and Austria; Hannover 225
Kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg; other German states; the free cities; Lüttich passes to Belgium 226-227
Revival of German national life 227
Affairs of Luxemburg 228-229
War of Sleswick and Holstein; the duchies ceded to Austria and Prussia 228
War of 1866; North German Confederation; exclusion of Austria; great advance of Prussia 228-229
War with France; the new German Empire; recovery of Elsass-Lothringen 229-230
Comparison of the old kingdom and the new Empire; name of Prussia 230-231
§ 3. The Kingdom of Italy.
Small geographical importance of the kingdom; changes on the Alpine frontier 231-232
Case of Trieste 233
Apulia, Sicily, Venice, no part of the kingdom; their relation to the Eastern Empire 233-234
Special history of the house of Savoy 234
Extent of the kingdom; Neustria and Austria; Æmilia, Tuscany; Romagna 234-235
Lombardy proper; the marches 235
Comparison of Germany and Italy; the commonwealths, the tyrants, the Popes; four stages of Italian history 235-236
Northern Italy; the Marquesses of Montferrat; the Lombard cities; the Veronese march 236-238
Central Italy; Romagna and the march of Ancona; the Tuscan commonwealths; Pisa and Genoa; Rome and the Popes 238-239
The tyrannies; Spanish dominion: practical abeyance of the Empire in Italy; Imperial and Papal fiefs 239-240
Palaiologoi at Montferrat; house of Visconti at Milan; the duchy of Milan; its dismemberment; duchy of Parma and Piacenza 240-242
Land power of Venice 242-243
Other principalities; duchy of Mantua, of Ferrara and Modena; difference in their tenure 243-244
Romagna; Bologna; Urbino; advance of the Popes 244
The Tuscan cities; Lucca; rivalry of Pisa and Genoa; Siena; Florence 245
Duchy of Florence; grand duchy of Tuscany 246
§ 4. The Later Geography of Italy.
The kingdom practically forgotten; position of Charles the Fifth 246
Italy a geographical expression; changes in the Italian states 246-247
Dominion of the two branches of the house of Austria 247
Italy mapped into larger states; exceptions at Monaco and San Marino 247
Venice; Milan Spanish and Austrian; its dismemberment in favour of Savoy; end of Montferrat and Mantua 248-249
Parma and Piacenza; separation of Modena and Ferrara; Genoa and Lucca; Grand Duchy of Tuscany; advance of the Popes 249
The Norman kingdom of Sicily; Benevento 250
The Two Sicilies; their various unions and divisions; their relations to the houses of Austria, Savoy and Bourbon 250-251
Use of the name Sardinia 251
Wars of the French Revolution; the new republics; Treaty of Campo Formio; Piedmont joined to France 251-253
Restoration of the Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies 253
The French kingdoms; Etruria; Italy 253
Various annexations; Rome becomes French; Murat King of Naples 253-254
Italy under French dominion; revival of the Italian name 254-255
Settlement of 1814-1815; the princes restored, but not the commonwealths 255
Austrian kingdom of Lombardy and Venice; Genoa annexed by Piedmont 255-256
The smaller states; the Papal states; Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 256
Union of Italy comes from Piedmont; earlier movements; war of 1859; Kingdom of Italy: Savoy and Nizza ceded to France 257-258
Recovery of Venetia and Rome; parts of the kingdom not recovered 258
Freedom of San Marino 258
§ 5. The Kingdom of Burgundy.
Union of Burgundy with Germany; dying out of the kingdom; chiefly swallowed up by France, but represented by Switzerland 258-259
Boundaries of the kingdom; fluctuation; Romance tongue prevails in it 259
History of the Burgundian Palatinate; Besançon; Montbeliard 261
The Lesser Burgundy; partly German 261
The Dukes of Zähringen; the ecclesiastical states; the free cities; the free lands; growth of the Old League of High Germany 262
Growth of Savoy; Burgundian possessions of its counts 263
States between the Palatinate and the Mediterranean; Bresse and Bugey; principalities and free cities 263
County of Provence; its connexion with France 263-264
Progress of French annexation: 1310-1791: Lyons; the Dauphiny: Vienne; Valence; Provence; Avignon and Venaissin 264-265
Nizza 265
History of Orange 265-266
States which have split off from the Imperial kingdoms: Switzerland; Savoy; the duchy of Burgundy by Belgium and the Netherlands 266-267
The Austrian power; its position as a marchland; its union with Hungary; its relation to Eastern Europe 267-268
§ 6. The Swiss Confederation.
German origin of the Confederation; popular errors; sketch of Swiss history 268-270
The Three Lands; the cities: Luzern, Zürich, Bern; the Eight Ancient Cantons 270
Allies and subjects; dominion of Zürich and Bern; conquests from Austria 270-271
Italian conquests; first conquests from Savoy; League of Wallis 271-272
The Thirteen Cantons 272
League of Graubünden; further Italian and Savoyard conquests 272-273
History of Geneva; territory restored to Savoy; division of Gruyères 273-274
The Allied States; Neufchâtel; Constanz 274
The Confederation independent of the Empire; its position as a middle state 274-275
Wars of the French Revolution; Helvetic Republic; freedom of the subject lands; annexations to France 275-276
Act of Mediation; the nineteen cantons 276
The present Swiss Confederation 276
History of Neufchâtel 276
§ 7. The State of Savoy.
Position and growth of Savoy; three divisions of the Savoyard lands; popular confusions 277-278
The Savoyard power originally Burgundian; Maurienne; Aosta 278
First Italian possessions 279
Burgundian advance; lands north of the lake 280-281
Relations to Geneva, France, and Bern 281-282
Acquisition of Nizza 282
Italian advance of Savoy; principally of Achaia, of Piedmont; Saluzzo 283-284
Savoy a middle state 284
French influence and occupation; decline of Savoy 285
Loss of lands north of the lake; further losses to Bern and her allies; recovery of the lands south of the lake; the Savoyard power becomes mainly Italian 286
Savoy falls back in Burgundy and advances in Italy; history of Saluzzo; finally acquired in exchange for Bresse, &c. 287
Duchy of Savoy annexed to France; restored; annexed again 288
French annexation of Nizza; Aosta the one Burgundian remnant 288
Savoyard advance in Italy 289
§ 8. The Duchy of Burgundy and the Low Countries.
Position of the Valois dukes as a middle power; result of their twofold vassalage 290
Schemes of a Burgundian kingdom; their final effects; Belgium and the Netherlands 290-291
History of the duchy of Burgundy; its union with Flanders, Artois, and the county of Burgundy; relations to France and the Empire 292-293
The Netherlands; the counts of Flanders; their Imperial fiefs 293
Holland and Friesland 293
Brabant; Hainault; union of Holland and Hainault 294
Common points in all these states; the great cities; Romance and Teutonic dialects 294-295
South-western states; Liége; Luxemburg; Limburg; duchy of Geldern 295
Middle position of these states; French influence; union under the Burgundian dukes 296
Advance under Philip the Good; Namur, Brabant, and Limburg, Holland and Hainault 296-297
The towns on the Somme; Flanders and Artois released from homage 297-298
Philip’s last acquisition of Luxemburg; advance under Charles the Bold and Charles the Fifth; union of the Netherlands 298
The Netherlands pass to Spain; war of independence; its imperfect results 299
The Seven United Provinces; their independence of the Empire; their colonies; lack of a name; use of the word Dutch 299-300
The Spanish Netherlands; English possession of Dunkirk; advance of France; the Spanish Netherlands pass to Austria 301
Annexation by France; kingdom of Holland; all the Burgundian possessions French 302
Kingdom of the Netherlands; Liége incorporated; relation of Luxemburg to Germany 303
Division of the Netherlands and Belgium; separation of Luxemburg from Germany 303
General history and result of the Burgundian power 303-304
§ 9. The Dominions of Austria.
Origin of the name Austria; anomalous position of the Austrian power; the so-called ‘Empire’ of Austria 305-307
The Eastern Mark; becomes a duchy; division of Carinthia; union of Austria and Styria 307-308
County of Görz 309
Austria, &c., annexed by Bohemia; great power of Ottokar 309
House of Habsburg; their Swabian and Alsatian lands; their loss 309-311
King Rudolf; break-up of the power of Ottokar; Albert duke of Austria and Styria 310
Relations between Austria and the Empire; division of the Austrian dominions 311-312
Acquisition of Carinthia and Tyrol; commendation of Trieste; loss of Thurgau 312-313
Austrian kings and emperors; possessions beyond the Empire 313-315
Union with Bohemia and Hungary 314-317
Consequences of the union with Hungary; slow recovery of the kingdom 317
Acquisition of Görz; advance towards Italy; Austrian dominion and influence in Italy 318
Connexion of Austria and Burgundy; the Austrian Netherlands 318-319
Loss of Elsass; of Silesia; acquisition of Poland; Dalmatia 320
Position and dominions of Maria Theresa 320-321
New use of the name Austria; the Austrian ‘Empire’ in 1811 321-322
Misuse of the Illyrian name 322
Austria in 1814-1815; recovery of Dalmatia; annexation of Ragusa; of Cracow 322-323
Separation from Hungary; reconquest; the ‘Austro-Hungarian Monarchy;’ Bosnia, Herzegovina, Spizza 323-324
CHAPTER IX.
THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.
Origin and growth of France; comparison with Austria 325
How far Karolingia split off from the Empire 326
France a nation as well as a power 326-327
Use of the name of France; its dukes acquire the western kingdom; extent of their dominion 327-328
Two forms of annexation; first, of fiefs of the crown; secondly, of lands beyond the kingdom 328
Distinctions among the fiefs; the great vassals; Normandy; Britanny 328
The Twelve Peers; different position of the bishops in Germany and Karolingia 328-329
§ 1. Incorporation of the Vassal States.
The duchy of France in 987; the King cut off from the sea 329-330
The neighbouring states; position of the Parisian kings 330
The kings less powerful than the dukes; advantages of their kingship; first advances of the kings 331
The House of Anjou; gradual union of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Aquitaine, and Gascony 331-333
Acquisition of continental Normandy, Anjou, &c. 333-334
The English kings keep Aquitaine and insular Normandy 334
Sudden greatness of France 334
Fiefs of Aragon in Southern Gaul; counts of Toulouse and Barcelona 334-335
Effects of the Albigensian war; French annexations; Roussillon and Barcelona freed from homage 335
Languedoc 335
Other annexations of Saint Lewis 335-336
Annexation of Champagne; temporary possession of Navarre 336-337
The Hundred Years’ War; relations between France and Aquitaine; momentary possession of Aquitaine by Philip the Fair 337
Peace of Bretigny; Aquitaine and other lands freed from homage 337-338
Peace of Troyes; momentary union of the French and English crowns 338
Final annexation of Aquitaine; beginning of the modern French kingdom 338-339
Growths of the Dukes of Burgundy; the towns on the Somme; momentary annexation of Artois and the County of Burgundy 339-340
Annexation of the duchy of Burgundy; Flanders and Artois released from homage; analogy with Aquitaine 340-343
§ 2. Foreign Annexations of France.
Relations between France and England; Boulogne; Dunkirk 341-342
Relations between France and Spain; Roussillon; Navarre; Andorra 342-343
Advance at the cost of the Imperial kingdoms, first Burgundy, then Germany 343
Effect of the Burgundian conquests of France; relations with Savoy and Switzerland 344
History of the Langue d’oc 345
French dominion in Italy; slight extent of real annexation 345-346
French annexations from Germany; the Three Bishoprics; effect of isolated conquests 346
French acquisitions in Elsass; France reaches and passes the Rhine; increased isolation 347-348
Temporary annexation of Bar; annexation of Roussillon; advance in the Netherlands 348-349
Annexation of Franche Comté and Besançon; seizure of Strassburg; annexation of Orange 349-350
Annexation of Lorraine; thorough incorporation of French conquests; effect of geographical continuity 350-351
Purchase of Corsica; its effects; birth of Buonaparte 351-352
§ 3. The Colonial Dominion of France.
French colonies in North America; Acadia; Canada; Louisiana 352
Colonial rivalry of France and England; English conquest of Canada 353
French West India Islands 353
The French power in India; Bourbon and Mauritius 353-354
§ 4. Acquisitions of France during the Revolutionary Wars.
Distinction between the Republican and ‘Imperial’ Conquests 355-356
First class of annexations; Avignon, Mülhausen, Montbeliard; Geneva; bishopric of Basel 355
Second zone; traditions of Gaul and the Rhine; Netherlands; Savoy, &c.; feelings of Buonaparte towards Switzerland 355-356
Character of Buonaparte’s conquests; dependent and incorporated lands; division of Europe between France and Russia 356-357
The French power in 1811 357-358
Arrangements of 1814-1815 358-359
Later changes; annexation of Savoy, Nizza, and Mentone; loss of Elsass and Lorraine 359
Losses among the colonies; independence of Hayti; sale of Louisiana 359-360
Conquest of Algeria; character of African conquests 360
CHAPTER X.
THE EASTERN EMPIRE.
Comparison of the Eastern and Western Empires; the Western falls to pieces from within; the Eastern is broken to pieces from without 362-363
Tendencies to separation in the Eastern Empire 363
Closer connexion of the East with the elder Empire; retention of the Roman name; Romania 363-364
Importance of the distinction of races in the East 364
The original races; Albanians, Greeks, Vlachs 364
Slavonic settlers 364
Turanian invasions from the North; Bulgarians, Magyars, &c. 365
The Saracens 365