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_THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES,
AND AT THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE._
THE ANNUNCIATION. Fac-simile of a Miniature from the “Hours” of Anne de Bretagne formerly belonging to Catherine de Medicis (Library of M. A. Firmin Didot.)
THE ARTS
IN
THE MIDDLE AGES,
AND AT THE PERIOD OF
THE RENAISSANCE.
BY PAUL LACROIX
(Bibliophile Jacob),
CURATOR OF THE IMPERIAL LIBRARY OF THE ARSENAL, PARIS.
Illustrated with NINETEEN CHROMOLITHOGRAPHIC PRINTS BY F. KELLERHOVEN
AND UPWARDS OF
FOUR HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
FOURTH THOUSAND.
LONDON:
BICKERS AND SON, 1, LEICESTER SQUARE.
PREFACE OF THE EDITOR.
The aim and scope of this work are so explicitly set forth in the appended Preface by its Author as to require for the book no further introduction. The position held by M. LACROIX in the Imperial Library of the Arsenal, Paris, is a sufficient guarantee of his qualifications for undertaking a publication of this nature. How far his labours were appreciated in France is evident from the fact that, when the first edition made its appearance, it was exhausted within a few days.
It may fairly be presumed that THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES will find equal favour in England, where so much attention has of late years been given to the subject in all its various ramifications; and where,--in our National Museum, Kensington, especially,--we are accumulating so extensive and valuable a collection of objects associated with the epochs referred to by M. LACROIX.
In preparing these sheets for the press, my task has been little more than to put an excellent and conscientious literal translation of the French text into language somewhat in harmony with the construction of our own. In so doing, however, it has been my object to retain, as far as practicable, the peculiar--sometimes the quaint--phraseology of the original writing. A few notes are added when they appeared necessary by way of explaining terms, &c., or to render them more intelligible to the general reader. But some words are used by the Author for which no English equivalent can be found: these have been allowed to stand without note or comment.
JAMES DAFFORNE.
BRIXTON, February, 1870.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND FRENCH EDITION.
More than twenty years ago we published, with the aid of our friend Ferdinand Séré, whose loss we regret, and with the co-operation of other learned men and of the most eminent writers and artists, an important work, entitled “THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE.” That work, which consists of no less than five large quarto volumes, treated in detail the manners and customs, the sciences, literature, and the arts of those two great epochs, a subject as vast as it is interesting and instructive. Thanks to the learning it displays, to its literary merit and its admirable execution, it had the rare good fortune to attract immediately the attention of the public, and even now it maintains the interest which marked its first appearance. It has taken its place in the library of the amateur, not only in France but also among foreigners; it has become celebrated.
This exceptional result, especially as regards a publication of such extent, induces us to believe that our work, thus known and appreciated by the learned, may and ought henceforth to have still greater success by addressing itself to a yet larger number of readers.
With this conviction we now present to the public one of the principal portions of that important work, and perhaps the most interesting, in a form more simple, easier, and more pleasing; within the reach of youth who desire to learn without weariness or irksomeness, of females interested in grave authors, of the family that loves to assemble round a book altogether instructive and attractive. We would speak of the “ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES, AND AT THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE.” After having reunited the scattered materials on this subject, we have ranged them each in its own rank, taking care to discard all crudity of learning and to preserve in our work the brilliant colouring in which it was first clothed.
All the Arts are interesting in themselves. Their productions awaken attention and excite curiosity. But here it is not one Art only that is treated of. We pass in review all the Arts, starting from the fourth century to the second half of the sixteenth--Architecture raising churches and abbeys, palaces and public memorials, strong fortresses and the ramparts of cities; Sculpture adorning and perfecting other Arts by its works in stone, marble, bronze, wood, and ivory; Painting, commencing with mosaic and enamels, contributing to the decoration of buildings jointly with stained glass and frescoes, embellishing and illuminating manuscripts before it arrived at its highest point of perfection, with the Art of Giotto and Raphael, of Hemling and Albert Dürer; Engraving on wood and metal, with which is associated the work of the medallist and the goldsmith; and after attempting to touch upon Playing-cards and Niello-work, we suddenly evoke that sublime invention destined to change the face of the world--Printing. Such are, in brief, some of the principal features of this splendid picture. One can imagine what an infinity, what variety and richness, of details it should contain.
Our subject presents, at the same time, another kind of interest more elevated and not less alluring. Here each Art appears in its different phases and in its diversified progress. It is a history, not alone of the Arts, but of the epoch itself in which they were developed; for the Arts, regarded in their generality, are the truest expression of society. They speak to us of tastes, of ideas, of character: they exhibit us in their works. Of all an age can leave to the future concerning itself, that which represents it most vividly is Art: the Arts of an epoch revivify it, and bring it back before our eyes.
It is this which forms our book. Yet, we must remark, here its interest is redoubled, for we retrace not only a single era, but two eras very distinct from each other. In the first, that of the Middle Ages, which followed the invasion of the Northmen, society was in a great measure formed of new and barbarous elements, which Christianity laboured to break up and fashion. In the second epoch, on the contrary, society was organised and firmly established; it enjoyed peace, and reaped its fruits. The Arts followed the same phases. At first rude and informal, they rose slowly and by degrees, like society, out of chaos. At length they nourished in perfect freedom, and progressed with all the energy of which the human mind is capable. Hence the successive advances whose history presents a marvellous interest.
During the Middle Ages, Art generally followed the inspirations of that Christian spirit which presided at the formation of this new world. It arose to reproduce in an admirable manner the religious ideal. Only towards the end of that period it searched out for beauty of form, and began to find it when the Renaissance made its appearance: the Renaissance, that is, the intellectual revolution, which, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, restored among modern nations the sceptre to Literature and the Arts of antiquity. Then, with the Renaissance, the Arts changed their direction, and especially the principal Arts, those by which the genius of man expresses most forcibly his ideas and his feelings. Thus, in the Middle Ages, a new style of architecture is created that rapidly attained the highest degree of perfection, the ogival (later Gothic or flamboyant), of which we see the chefs-d’œuvre in our cathedrals: at the Renaissance, this was replaced by architecture derived from that of the Greeks and Romans, which also produced admirable works, but almost always less in harmony with the dignity and splendour of worship. In the Middle Ages, Painting chiefly applied itself to represent the beau idéal of the religious mind reflecting itself in the countenance; at the Renaissance, it is the beauty of the physical form, so perfectly expressed by the ancients. Sculpture, which comes nearer to Painting, followed at the same time all similar phases, drawing the art of Engraving with it. Do not the diversified changes through which the Arts passed, as retraced in this book during two epochs, present to the intelligent reader a succession of facts of the highest interest and a history most instructive?
Our work is the only existing one on this great and magnificent subject, of which the materials are scattered through a multitude of volumes. Thus for the success of this undertaking it became necessary to unite with us in our task men most distinguished by their learning and talents: we are permitted to cite the names of MM. Ernest Breton, Aimé Champollion, Champollion-Figeac, Pierre Dubois, Duchesne, Ferdinand Denis, Jacquemart, Arch. Juvinal, Jules Labarte, Lassus, Louandre, Prosper Mérimée, Alfred Michiels, Gabriel Peignot, Riocreux, De Saulcy, Jean Designeur, le Marquis de Varennes. After such a list we record our own name only to acknowledge that we have gone over and recast these various works, and presented them in a form which gives them more unity, but owes to them all the interest and all the charm it may offer.
The numerous illustrations that adorn the work will engage the eye, while the text will speak to the intelligence. The designs in chromolithography are executed by M. Kellerhoven, who for several years has made the art one of a high order, worthy to shine among the finest works of our greatest painters, as is proved by his “Chefs-d’œuvre of the Great Masters,” “Lives of the Saints,” and “Legend of St. Ursula.”
No one is ignorant of the attention given in these days to archæology. Information about objects of antiquity is necessary to every instructed person. It ought to be studied so far as to enable us to appreciate, or at least to recognise, the examples of olden time in Architecture, Painting, &c., that present themselves to our notice. Thus it has become for the young of each sex indispensable to good education. The perusal of this book will be for such an attractive introduction to that knowledge which for too long a time was the exclusive domain of the learned.
PAUL LACROIX
(Bibliophile Jacob).
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
FURNITURE: HOUSEHOLD AND ECCLESIASTICAL 1
Simplicity of Furniture among the Gauls and Franks.--Introduction of costly taste in articles of Furniture of the Seventh Century.--Arm-chair of Dagobert.--Round Table of King Artus.--Influence of the Crusades.--Regal Banquet in the time of Charles V.--Benches.--Sideboards.--Dinner Services.--Goblets.--Brassware.--Casks.--Lighting.--Beds.--Carved-wood Furniture.--Locksmith’s Work.--Glass and Mirrors.--Room of a Feudal Seigneur.--Costliness of Furniture used for Ecclesiastical Purposes.--Altars.--Censers.--Shrines and Reliquaries.--Gratings and Iron-mountings.
TAPESTRY 37
Scriptural Origin of Tapestry.--Needlework Embroidery in Ancient Greek and Roman Times.--Attalic Carpets.--Manufacture of Carpets in Cloisters.--Manufactory at Poitiers in the Twelfth Century.--Bayeux Tapestry, named “De la Reine Mathilde.”--Arras Carpets.--Inventory of the Tapestries of Charles V.; enormous Value of these Embroidered Hangings.--Manufactory at Fontainebleau, under Francis I.--The Manufacture of the Hôpital de la Trinité, at Paris.--The Tapestry Workers, Dubourg and Laurent, in the reign of Henry IV.--Factories of Savonnerie and Gobelins.
CERAMIC ART 53
Pottery Workshops in the Gallo-Romano Period.--Ceramic Art disappears for several Centuries in Gaul: is again found in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries.--Probable Influence of Arabian Art in Spain.--Origin of Majolica.--Luca della Robbia and his Successors.--Enamelled Tiles in France, dating from the Twelfth Century.--The Italian Manufactories of Faenza, Rimini, Pesaro, &c.--Beauvais Pottery.--Invention and Works of Bernard Palissy; his History; his Chefs-d’œuvre.--The Faïence of Thouars, called “Henri II.”
ARMS AND ARMOUR 75
Arms of the Time of Charlemagne.--Arms of the Normans at the Time of the Conquest of England.--Progress of Armoury under the Influence of the Crusades.--The Coat of Mail.--The Crossbow.--The Hauberk and the Hoqueton.--The Helmet, the Hat of Iron, the Cervelière, the Greaves, and the Gauntlet; the Breastplate and the Cuish.--The Casque with Vizor.--Plain Armour and Ribbed Armour.--The Salade Helmet.--Costliness of Armour.--Invention of Gunpowder.--Bombards.--Hand-Cannons.--The Culverin, the Falconet.--The Arquebus with Metal-holder, with Match, and with Wheel.--The Gun and the Pistol.
CARRIAGES AND SADDLERY 107
Horsemanship among the Ancients.--The Riding-horse and the Carriage-horse.--Chariots armed with Scythes.--Vehicles of the Romans, the Gauls, and the Franks: Carruca, the Petoritum, the Cisium, the Plastrum, the Basterna, the Carpentum.--Different kinds of Saddle-horses in the Days of Chivalry.--The Spur a distinctive Sign of Nobility: its Origin.--The Saddle, its Origin and its Modifications.--The Tilter.--Carriages.--The Mules of Magistrates.--Corporations of Saddlers and Harness-makers, Lorimers, Coachmakers, Chapuiseurs, Blazonniers, and Saddle-coverers.
GOLD AND SILVER WORK 123
Its Antiquity.--The Trésor de Guarrazar.--The Merovingian and Carlovingian Periods.--Ecclesiastical Jewellery.--Pre-eminence of the Byzantine Goldsmiths.--Progress of the Art consequent on the Crusades.--The Gold and Enamels of Limoges.--Jewellery ceases to be restricted to Purposes of Religion.--Transparent Enamels.--Jean of Pisa, Agnolo of Siena, Ghiberti.--Great Painters and Sculptors from the Goldsmiths’ Workshops.--Benvenuto Cellini.--The Goldsmiths of Paris.
HOROLOGY 169
Modes of measuring Time among the Ancients.--The Gnomon.--The Water-Clock.--The Hour-Glass.--The Water-Clock, improved by the Persians and by the Italians.--Gerbert invents the Escapement and the moving Weights.--The Striking-bell.--Maistre Jehan des Orloges.--Jacquemart of Dijon.--The first Clock in Paris.--Earliest portable Timepiece.--Invention of the spiral Spring.--First appearance of Watches.--The Watches, or “Eggs,” of Nuremberg.--Invention of the Fusee.--Corporation of Clockmakers.--Noted Clocks at Jena, Strasburg, Lyons, &c.--Charles-Quint and Jannellus.--The Pendulum.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 187
Music in the Middle Ages.--Musical Instruments from the Fourth to the Thirteenth Century.--Wind Instruments: the Single and Double Flute, the Pandean Pipes, the Reed-pipe.--The Hautboy, the Flageolet, Trumpets, Horns, Olifants, the Hydraulic Organ, the Bellows-Organ.--Instruments of Percussion: the Bell, the Hand-bell, Cymbals, the Timbrel, the Triangle, the Bombulum, Drums.--Stringed Instruments: the Lyre, the Cithern, the Harp, the Psaltery, the Nable, the Chorus, the Organistrum, the Lute and the Guitar, the Crout, the Rote, the Viola, the Gigue, the Monochord.
PLAYING-CARDS 223
Supposed Date of their Invention.--Existed in India in the Twelfth Century.--Their connection with the Game of Chess.--Brought into Europe after the Crusades.--First Mention of a Game with Cards in 1379.--Cards well known in the Fifteenth Century in Spain, Germany, and France, under the name of Tarots.--Cards called Charles the Sixth’s must have been Tarots.--Ancient Cards, French, Italian, and German.--Cards contributing to the Invention of Wood-Engraving and Printing.
GLASS-PAINTING 251
Painting on Glass mentioned by Historians in the Third Century of our Era.--Glazed Windows at Brioude in the Sixth Century.--Coloured Glass at St. John Lateran and St. Peter’s in Rome.--Church-Windows of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries in France: Saint-Denis, Sens, Poitiers, Chartres, Rheims, &c.--In the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries the Art was at its Zenith.--Jean Cousin.--The Célestins of Paris: Saint-Gervais.--Robert Pinaigrier and his Sons.--Bernard Palissy decorates the Chapel of the Castle of Ecouen.--Foreign Art: Albert Dürer.
FRESCO-PAINTING 269
The Nature of Fresco.--Employed by the Ancients.--Paintings at Pompeii.--Greek and Roman Schools.--Mural Paintings destroyed by the Iconoclasts and Barbarians.--Revival of Fresco, in the Ninth Century, in Italy.--Fresco-Painters since Guido of Siena.--Principal Works of these Painters.--Successors of Raphael and Michael Angelo.--Fresco in Sgraffito.--Mural Paintings in France from the Twelfth Century.--Gothic Frescoes of Spain.--Mural Paintings in the Low Countries, Germany, and Switzerland.
PAINTING ON WOOD, CANVAS, ETC 283
The Rise of Christian Painting.--The Byzantine School.--First Revival in Italy.--Cimabue, Giotto, Fra Angelico.--Florentine School: Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo.--Roman School: Perugino, Raphael.--Venetian School: Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese.--Lombard School: Correggio, Parmigianino.--Spanish School.--German and Flemish Schools: Stephen of Cologne, John of Bruges, Lucas van Leyden, Albert Dürer, Lucas van Cranach, Holbein.--Painting in France during the Middle Ages.--Italian Masters in France.--Jean Cousin.
ENGRAVING 315
Origin of Wood-Engraving.--The St. Christopher of 1423.--“The Virgin and Child Jesus.”--The earliest Masters of Wood-Engraving.--Bernard Milnet.--Engraving in Camaïeu.--Origin of Engraving on Metal.--The “Pax” of Maso Finiguerra.--The earliest Engravers on Metal.--Niello Work.--Le Maître of 1466.--Le Maître of 1486. Martin Schöngauer, Israel van Mecken, Wenceslaus of Olmutz, Albert Dürer, Marc Antonio, Lucas van Leyden.--Jean Duret and the French School.--The Dutch School.--The Masters of Engraving.
SCULPTURE 339
Origin of Christian Sculpture.--Statues in Gold and Silver.--Traditions of Antique Art.--Sculpture in Ivory.--Iconoclasts.--Diptychs.--The highest Style of Sculpture follows the Phases of Architecture.--Cathedrals and Monasteries from the year 1000.--Schools of Burgundy, Champagne, Normandy, Lorraine, &c.--German, English, Spanish, and Italian Schools.--Nicholas of Pisa and his Successors.--Position of French Sculpture in the Thirteenth Century.--Florentine Sculpture and Ghiberti.--French Sculptors from the Fifteenth to the Sixteenth Century.
ARCHITECTURE 373
The Basilica the first Christian Church.--Modification of Ancient Architecture.--Byzantine Style.--Formation of the Norman Style.--Principal Norman Churches.--Age of the Transition from Norman to Gothic.--Origin and Importance of the Ogive.--Principal Edifices in the pure Gothic Style.--The Gothic Church, an Emblem of the Religious Spirit in the Middle Ages.--Florid Gothic.--Flamboyant Gothic.--Decadency.--Civil and Military Architecture: Castles, Fortified Enclosures, Private Houses, Town-Halls.--Italian Renaissance: Pisa, Florence, Rome.--French Renaissance: Mansions and Palaces.
PARCHMENT AND PAPER 413
Parchment in Ancient Times.--Papyrus.--Preparation of Parchment and Vellum in the Middle Ages.--Sale of Parchment at the Fair of Lendit.--Privilege of the University of Paris on the Sale and Purchase of Parchment.--Different Applications of Parchment.--Cotton Paper imported from China.--Order of the Emperor Frederick II. concerning Paper.--The Employment of Linen Paper, dating from the Twelfth Century.--Ancient Water-Marks on Paper.--Paper Manufactories in France and other parts of Europe.
MANUSCRIPTS 423
Manuscripts in Olden Times.--Their Form.--Materials of which they were composed.--Their Destruction by the Goths.--Rare at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.--The Catholic Church preserved and multiplied them.--Copyists.--Transcription of Diplomas.--Corporation of Scribes and Booksellers.--Palæography.--Greek Writings.--Uncial and Cursive Manuscripts.--Sclavonic Writings.--Latin Writers.--Tironian Shorthand.--Lombardic Characters.--Diplomatic.--Capetian.--Ludovicinian.--Gothic.--Runic.-- Visigothic.--Anglo-Saxon.--Irish.
MINIATURES IN MANUSCRIPTS 443
Miniatures at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.--The two “Vatican” Virgils.--Painting of Manuscripts under Charlemagne and Louis le Débonnaire.--Tradition of Greek Art in Europe.--Decline of the Miniature in the Tenth Century.--Origin of Gothic Art.--Fine Manuscript of the time of St. Louis.--Clerical and Lay Miniature-Painters.--Caricature and the Grotesque.--Miniatures in Monochrome and in Grisaille.--Illuminators at the Court of France and to the Dukes of Burgundy.--School of John Fouquet.--Italian Miniature-Painters.--Giulio Clovio.--French School under Louis XII.
BOOKBINDING 471
Primitive Binding of Books.--Bookbinding among the Romans.--Bookbinding with Goldsmith’s Work from the Fifth Century.--Chained Books.--Corporation of Lieurs, or Bookbinders.--Books bound in Wood, with Metal Corners and Clasps.--First Bindings in Leather, honeycombed (waffled?) and gilt.--Description of some celebrated Bindings of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.--Sources of Modern Bookbinding.--John Grollier.--President de Thou.--Kings and Queens of France Bibliomaniacs.--Superiority of Bookbinding in France.
PRINTING 485
Who was the Inventor of Printing?--Movable Letters in ancient Times.--Block Printing.--Laurent Coster.--Donati and Specula.--Gutenberg’s Process.--Partnership of Gutenberg and Faust.--Schœffer.--The Mayence Bible.--The Psalter of 1457.--The “Rationale” of 1459.--Gutenberg prints by himself.--The “Catholicon” of 1460.--Printing at Cologne, Strasbourg, Venice, and Paris.--Louis XI. and Nicholas Jenson.--German Printers at Rome.--Incunabula.--Colard Mansion.--Caxton.--Improvement of Typographical Processes up to the Sixteenth Century.
TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
I. CHROMOLITHOGRAPHS.
Plate To face page
1. The Annunciation. Fac-simile of Miniature
taken from the “Hours” of Anne
de Bretagne, formerly belonging to
Catherine de Medicis FRONTISPIECE
2. Distaff and Bedposts of the Sixteenth Century 20
3. Adoration of the Magi. Bernese Tapestry of the Fifteenth Century 46
4. Paris in the Fifteenth Century. Beauvais Tapestry 50
5. Encaustic Tiles 58
6. Biberon of Henri Deux Faience 64
7. Casque, Morion, and Helmets 82
8. Entrance of Queen Isabella of Bavaria
into Paris. From Froissart’s
“Chronicles” 118
9. Jewelled Crosses of the Visigoths, found at Guarrazar. Seventh Century 124
10. Drageoir, or Table Ornament. German work 154
11. Clock of Damaskeened Iron of the Fifteenth Century; and Watches of the Sixteenth Century 180
12. Francis I. and Eleanor his Wife at their Devotions. Sixteenth Century 266
13. The Dream of Life, a Fresco by Orcagna 276
14. St. Catherine and St. Agnes, by Margaret van Eyck 300
15. Clovis the First and Clotilde his Wife 352
16. Decoration of La Sainte-Chapelle, Paris 386
17. Coronation of Charles the Fifth of France. From Froissart’s “Chronicles” 464
18. Panel of a Book-cover of the Ninth Century 472
19. Diptych of Ivory 474
II. ENGRAVINGS.
Page
Abbey of St. Denis 416
Alhambra, Interior of the 405
Alphabet, Specimen of Grotesque 327
Altar-cloth of the Fifteenth Century 30
“ Cross ascribed to St. Eloi 137
“ of Gold 130
“ Tray and Chalice 31
Arch, Restoration of a Norman 343
Archer of Normandy 79
Archers of the Fifteenth Century, France 88
Arles, Sculptures on St. Trophimus 384, 385
Armour, Convex, of the Fifteenth Century 84
“ Knights in complete 89
“ Lion 90
“ of the Duc d’Alençon 92
“ Plain, of the Fifteenth Century 83
Arms of the Cardmakers of Paris 250
“ Goldsmiths of Paris 160
Arquebus with Wheel and Match 103
Arquebusier 102
Atelier of Etienne Delaulne 158
Bagpiper, Thirteenth Century 199
Banner of Paper-makers of Paris 422
“ Printers-Booksellers of Angers 479
“ Printers-Booksellers of Autun 484
“ Saddlers of Tonnerre 121
“ Sword-cutlers of Angers 105
“ Tapestry Workers of Lyons 51
Banners of Corporations 161
Banquet in the Fifteenth Century 12
Basilica of Constantine, at Trèves 374
Basilica of St. Peter’s, Rome, Interior of 407
Bas-relief in carved wood 34
Battle-axe and Pistol, Sixteenth Century 104
Bed furnished with Canopy and Curtains 19
Belfry of Brussels 404
Bell in a Tower of Siena, Twelfth Century 206
Bells of the Ninth Century, Chime of 208
Bolt of the Sixteenth Century, with Initial 23
Bombards on fixed and rolling carriages 96
Bookbinders’ Work-room 482
Bookbinding for the Gospels 474
“ in an Unknown Material 480
“ in Gold, with precious Stones 474
Borders:--
Bible, called Clement VII.’s 463
Bible of St. Martial of Limoges 450
Book of the Gospels, Eighth Century 446
Book of the Gospels, Eleventh Century 451
Book of the Gospels in Latin 451
Employed by John of Tournes 519
Froissart’s “Chronicles” 465
Gospel in Latin 456
Lectionary in Metz Cathedral 448
“Livre d’Heures” of Anthony Vérard 516
“Livre d’Heures” of Geoffroi Tory 517
Lyons School 518
Missal of Pope Paul V. 467
“Ovid,” Fifteenth Century 465
Prayer-book of Louis of France 461
Sacramentary of St. Æthelgar 453
Bracelet, Gallic 124
Brooch, chased, enamelled, &c. 167
Cabinet in damaskeened Iron, inlaid 22
“ for Jewels 21
Cameo-setting of the time of Charles V. 140
Cannon, Earliest Models of 98
“ Hand 99
Caparison of the Horse of Isabel the Catholic 117
Capital of a Column, St. Geneviève, Paris 392
“ “ St. Julien, Paris 392
“ “ The Célestins, Paris 393
Carruca, or Pleasure-carriage 108
Cart drawn by Oxen, Fifteenth Century 109
Castle of Marcoussis, near Rambouillet 397
“ Coucy, in its ancient state 399
“ Vincennes, Seventeenth Century 399
Cathedral of Amiens, Interior of 391
“ Mayence 388
Censer of the Eleventh Century 32
Chains 165
Chair called the “Fauteuil de Dagobert” 3
“ of Christine de Pisan 9
“ of Louise de Savoie 10
“ of Louis IX. 7
“ of the Ninth or Tenth Century 4
Chalice of the Fourth or Fifth Century 31
“ said to be of St. Remy 135
Château de Chambord 409
Chess-Players 225
Chest shaped like a Bed, and Chair 20
Choron, Ninth Century 211
Chorus with Single Bell-end with Holes 199
Church of Mouen, Remains of the 378
“ St. Agnes, Rome 377
“ St. Martin, Tours 377
“ St. Paul-des-Champs, Paris 381
“ St. Trophimus, Arles, Portal 384, 385
“ St. Vital, Ravenna 376
Clock, Astronomical, of Strasburg Cathedral 184
“ of Jena, in Germany 183
“ Portable, of the time of the Valois 178
“ with Wheels and Weights 177
Clockmaker, The 170
Cloister of the Abbey of Moissac, Guyenne 386
Coffee-pot of German Ware 72
Concert; a Bas-relief (Normandy) 193
“ and Musical Instruments 194
Cooper’s Workshop, Sixteenth Century 16
Crossbow Men protected by Shield-bearers 85
Cross, Gold-chased 163
Crout, Three-stringed, Ninth Century 217
Crown of Suintila, King of the Visigoths 125
Crozier, Abbot’s, enamelled 138
“ Bishop’s 138
Cup, Italian Ware 62
“ of Lapis-lazuli, mounted in Gold 152
Diadem of Charlemagne 127
Diptych in Ivory 345
Dish, Ornament of a 74
Doorways of the Hôtel de Sens, Paris 403
Dragonneau, Double-barreled 101
Drinking-cup of Agate 134
Dwelling-room of a Seigneur of the Fourteenth Century 26
Enamelled Border of a Dish 63
“ Dish, by Bernard Palissy 71
“ Terra-cotta 57
Engine for hurling Stones 95
Engraving:--
Columbus on board his Ship 325
Ferdinand I. 335
Herodias 329
Letter N, Grotesque Alphabet 327
Lutma, of Groningen 337
Isaiah with Instrument of his Martyrdom 323
Maximilian, Coronation of 321
Phalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum 333
Repose of the Holy Family 334
St. Catherine on her Knees 319
St. Hubert praying before the Cross borne by a Stag 331
The Holy Virgin 338
Engraving:--
The Prophet Isaiah 323
The Virgin and Child 318
The Virgin and Infant Jesus 316
Ensign of the Collar of the Goldsmiths of Ghent 144
Escutcheon in Silver-gilt 145
Escutcheon of France, Fourteenth Century 470
Ewer in Limoges Enamel 157
Fac-simile of a Bible of 1456 503
“ “Catholicon” of 1460 506
“ Engraving on Wood 487
“ Inscription Ex libris 441
“ Miniature drawn with a pen 450
“ Miniature of a Psalter 455
“ Miniature, Thirteenth Century 457
“ Page of a “Livre d’Heures” 510
“ Page of a Psalter of 1459 505
“ Page of the “Ars Moriendi” 495
“ Page of the most ancient Xylographic “Donatus” 491
“ Xylographic Page of the “Biblia Pauperum” 493
Fiddle, Angel playing on the 220
Flute, Double 197
Fresco-Painting:--
Christ and his Mother 273
Creation, The 278
Death and the Jew 281
Disciples in Gethsemane 275
Fra Angelico, of Fiesole 282
Fraternity of Cross-bowmen 280
Group of Saints 277
Pope Sylvester I. 274
Gargoyles in the Palais de Justice, Rouen 372
Gate of Moret 401
“ St. John, Provins 402
Glass-Painting:--
Citadel of Pallas 262
Flemish Window 265
Legend of the Jew piercing the Holy Wafer 260
St. Paul, an Enamel 264
St. Timothy the Martyr 255
Temptation of St. Mars 267
The Prodigal Son 257
Window, Evreux Cathedral 261
Goblet, by Bernard Palissy 69
Goldsmiths of Paris carrying a Shrine 162
Goldsmiths’ Stamps:--
Chartres 159
Lyons 159
Melun 159
Orleans 159
Gutenburg, Portrait of 492
Harp, Fifteen-stringed, Twelfth Century 214
“ Minstrel’s, Fifteenth Century 216
“ Triangular Saxon, Ninth Century 214
Harper of the Fifteenth Century 215
Harpers of the Twelfth Century 215
Helmet of Don Jaime el Conquistador 80
“ of Hughes, Vidame of Châlons 82
Henry VIII. in the Camp of the Field of the Cloth of Gold 119
Horn, or Olifant, Fourteenth Century 201
“ Shepherd’s, Eighth Century 201
Hour-glass of the Sixteenth Century 173
Hour-glass, Top of 186
Initial Letter, Ninth Century 476
Initial Letters from Manuscripts 445
Initial Letters extracted from the “Rouleau Mortuaire” of St. Vital 454
Jacquemart of Notre-Dame at Dijon 176
Key of the Thirteenth Century 23
King William, as represented on his Seal 77
Knight armed and mounted for War 114
“ entering the Lists 111
“ in his Hauberk 81
Knights, Combat of 89
Lament composed shortly after the Death of Charlemagne 188, 189
Lamps of the Nineteenth Century 17
Lancer of William the Conqueror’s Army 77
Library of the University of Leyden 475
Lute, Five-stringed, Thirteenth Century 216
Lyre, Ancient 209
“ of the North 209
Mangonneau of the Fifteenth Century 97
Miniatures:--
Anne de Bretagne’s Prayer-book 468
Book of the Gospels of Charlemagne 447
Consecration of a Bishop 449
Dante’s “Paradiso” 466
Evangelist, An, transcribing 415
Four Sons of Aymon 458
Les Femmes Illustres 461
Margrave of Baden’s “Livre d’Heures” 469
Miniature of the Thirteenth Century 457
Missal of the Eleventh Century 452
Order of the Holy Ghost, Instituting the 464
Psalter of John, Duke of Berry 462
Psalter of the Thirteenth Century 455
“Roman de Fauvel,” from the 459
“Virgil,” in the Vatican, Rome 444
Mirror for Hand or Pocket 25
Monochord played with a Bow 221
Musician sounding Military Trumpet 202
Musicians playing on the Flute, &c. 198
“ “ Violin 219
Nabulum, Ninth Century 211
Notre-Dame la Grande of Poitiers 383
“ Paris 390
“ Rouen 379
Organ, Great, of the Twelfth Century 204
“ Pneumatic, of the Fourth Century 203
“ Portable, of the Fifteenth Century 205
“ with single Key-board 205
Organistrum, Ninth Century 213
Oxford, Saloon of the Schools 396
Painting on Wood, Canvas, &c.:--
Baptism of King Clovis 286
Christ crowned with Thorns 304
Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci 292
Princess Sibylla of Saxony 305
St. Ursula 302
Sketch of the Virgin of Alba 312
The Holy Family 294
The Holy Virgin, St. George, and St. Donat 300
The Last Judgment 311
The Patriarch Job 290
The Tribute Money 309
Paper-maker, The 420
Pendant, adorned with Diamonds, &c. 164
“ after a Design by Benvenuto Cellini 150
Playing-Cards:--
Ancient French 236
Buffoon, from a Pack of Tarots 230
Charles VI. on his Throne 233
Engravings, Coloured, analogous to Playing-Cards 227
From a Game of “Logic” 245
German Round-shaped 247
Italian Tarots 242
Justice 231
King of Acorns 244
Knave of Clubs 238
Knight from a Pack engraved by “The Master of 1466” 249
La Damoiselle 248
Moon, The 231
Roxana, Queen of Hearts 242
Specimen of the Sixteenth Century 236
Three and Eight of Bells 243
Two of a Pack of German Lansquenet 245
Two of Bells 244
Porte de Hal, Brussels 410
Pottery Figures, Fragments of 68
“ Ornamentation on 67
Printers’ Marks, Arnold de Keyser, Ghent 511
“ “ Bonaventure and Elsevier, Leyden 520
“ “ Colard Mansion, Bruges 512
“ “ Eustace, W. 483
“ “ Fust and Schœffer 511
“ “ Galliot du Pré, Paris 513
“ “ Gérard Leeu, Gouwe 511
“ “ Gryphe, Lyons 515
“ “ J. Le Noble, Troyes 515
“ “ Philippe le Noir, &c., Paris 514
“ “ Plantin, Antwerp 515
“ “ Robert Estienne, Paris 515
“ “ Vostre, Simon, Paris 513
“ “ Temporal, Lyons 514
“ “ Trechsel, Lyons 512
Printing-office, Interior of a 499
Psalterion, Performer on the 212
“ Twelfth Century 211
Psaltery, Buckle-shaped 211
“ to produce a prolonged Sound 210
Reredos in Carved Bone 363
Rebec of the Sixteenth Century 221
Reading-desk of the Fifteenth Century 33
Reliquary, Byzantine 129
“ Silver-gilt 143
Rings 165
Rote, David playing on a 218
Saddle-cloth, Sixteenth Century 118
Salt-cellar, Enamelled 155
“ Interior base of 156
Sambute, or Sackbut, of the Ninth Century 202
Sansterre, as represented on his Seal 79
Saufang, of St. Cecilia’s at Cologne, The 206
Scent-box in Chased Gold 142
Scribe or Copyist in his Work-room 432
Sculpture:--
Altar of Castor 340
Altar of Jupiter Ceraunus 341
Bas-relief of Dagobert I. 347
Citizens relieving Poor Scholars 351
Coronation of the Emperor Sigismund 360
Fragment of a Reredos in Bone 363
Francis I. and Henry VIII. on the Field of the Cloth of Gold 369
Gargoyles on the Palace of Justice, Rouen 372
Roman Triumphal Arch 342
“Le Bon Dieu,” Paris 364
St. Eloi 366
St. John the Baptist preaching 368
St. Julien and his Wife conveying Jesus Christ in their boat 362
Statue of Philip Chabot 370
Statue of Dagobert I. 347
Statue said to be of Clovis I. 353
Statues on Bourges Cathedral 357
Statuette of St. Avit 361
Stone Tomb 343
The “Beau Dieu d’Amiens” 355
The Entombment 371
Tomb of Dagobert 349
Seal of the Goldsmiths of Paris 159
“ King of La Basoche 419
Seal of the University of Oxford 478
“ University of Paris 417
Seals 166
Seats, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 8
Sedan Chair of Charles V. 120
Shrine in Copper-gilt 132
Shrine in Limoges 131
“ of the Fifteenth Century 147
Soldiers, Gallo-Romano 76
Spurs, German and Italian 113
Staircase of a Tower 398
Stall of the Fifteenth Century 33
Stalls in St. Benoît-sur-Loire 35
Sword of Charlemagne 126
Syrinx, Seven-tubed 197
Table of King Artus of Brittany 5
Tapestry:-- Construction of Boats for the Conqueror 44 Hunting Scene 49 Marriage of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany 46 Mounted Men of Duke William’s army 45 The Weaver 50
Tintinnabulum, or Hand-bell 206
Toledo, Gothic Architecture at 393
Tour de Nesle, Paris 400
Tournament Helmet, screwed on the Breastplate 82
Tournament Saddles, ornamented with Paintings 116
Tree of Jesse. From a Miniature 195
Triangle of the Ninth Century 222
Trumpet, Curved, Eleventh Century 200
“ Straight, with Stand 200
Tympanum of the Thirteenth Century 208
Vase of Rock-crystal, mounted in Silver-gilt 152
Vases of ancient shape 54, 55
Vielle, Juggler playing on a 220
“ Oval 220
“ Player on the 220
Watches of the Valois Epoch 181
Water-jug, Four-handled 72
Water-marks on Paper 421
Window with Stone Seats 398
Wood-block cut in France, about 1440 488
“ Print cut in Flanders 486
Writing Caligraphic Ornament 442
“ Cursive, of the Fifteenth Century 439
“ Diplomatic, of the Tenth Century 438
“ of the Eighth Century 436, 437
“ of the Fifteenth Century 442
“ of the Fourteenth Century 440
“ of the Seventh Century 435, 436
“ of the Sixth Century 435
“ of the Tenth Century 437
“ Tironian, of the Eighth Century 437
“ Title and Capital Letters of the Seventh Century 435
THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES,
AND AT THE PERIOD OF
THE RENAISSANCE.
FURNITURE:
ORDINARY HOUSEHOLD, AND APPERTAINING TO ECCLESIASTICAL PURPOSES.
Simplicity of Furniture among the Gauls and Franks.--Introduction of costly taste in articles of Furniture of the Seventh Century.--Arm-chair of Dagobert.--Round Table of King Artus.--Influence of the Crusades.--Regal Banquet in the time of Charles V.--Benches.--Sideboards.--Dinner Services.--Goblets.--Brassware.--Casks.--Lighting.--Beds.--Carved Wood Furniture.--Locksmith’s Work.--Glass and Mirrors.--Room of a Feudal Seigneur.--Costliness of Furniture used for Ecclesiastical Purposes.--Altars.--Censers.--Shrines and Reliquaries.--Gratings and Iron-mountings.
We shall be readily believed when we assert that the furniture used by our remote ancestors, the Gauls, was of the most rude simplicity. A people essentially addicted to war and hunting,--at the best, agriculturists,--having for their temples the forests, for their dwellings huts formed out of turf and thatched with straw and branches, would naturally be indifferent to the form and description of their furniture.
Then succeeded the Roman Conquest. Originally, and long subsequent to the formation of their warlike republic, the Romans had also lived in contempt of display, and even in ignorance of the conveniences of life. But when they had subjugated Gaul, and had carried their victorious arms to the confines of the world, they by degrees appropriated whatever the manners and habits of the conquered nations disclosed to them of refined luxury, material progress, and ingenious devices for comfort. Thus, the Romans brought with them into Gaul what they elsewhere had acquired. Again, when, in their turn, the semi-barbarous hordes of Germany and of the Northern steppes invaded the Roman empire, these new conquerors did not fail to accommodate themselves instinctively to the social condition of the vanquished.
This, briefly stated, is an explanation--we admit, rather concise--of the transition connecting the characteristics of the society of olden days with those of modern society.
Society in the Middle Ages--that social epoch which may be compared to the state of a decrepid and worn-out old man, who, after a long, dull torpor awakes to new life, like an active and vigorous child--society in the Middle Ages inherited much from preceding times, though, to a certain extent, they were disconnected. It transformed, perhaps; and it perfected, rather than invented; but it displayed in its works a genius so peculiar that we generally recognise in it a real creation.
Proposing rapidly to pursue our archæological and literary course through a twofold period of birth and revival, we cannot indulge the belief that we shall succeed in exhibiting our sketches in a light the best adapted to their effect. However, we will make the attempt, and, the frame being given, will do our best to fill in the picture.