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Transcriber's Note:
Obvious typographical errors in the editor's text have been corrected. Inconsistent or incorrect accents, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation in the original documents and quotes were left as printed.
Italic text is denoted by underscores.
The following apparent spelling inconsistencies were left as printed:
Father Stanilaus and Stanislaus
Trumbull and Trumball
Gwathway's and Gnathway's Hotel
Geoffroy and Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire.
On page 59, March 1749 is an apparent error. On page 69, alcade should perhaps be alcalde. On page 370, "as John as concluded" is a possible printer's error. On page 371, "I now collecting Letters" is a possible printer's error. On page 372, "as never reachd thee" is a possible printer's error. In footnote 23, "Formon" is the spelling used in the letter printed in this volume.
AUDUBON
THE
NATURALIST
John J. Audubon AFTER THE RARE ENGRAVING BY C. TURNER, A.R.A., OF THE MINIATURE PAINTED BY FREDERICK CRUIKSHANK, ABOUT 1831; PUBLISHED FOR THE ENGRAVER BY ROBERT HAVELL, LONDON, 1835.
AUDUBON
THE
NATURALIST
A HISTORY OF HIS LIFE AND TIME
BY
FRANCIS HOBART HERRICK, Ph.D., Sc.D.
PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, AUTHOR OF "THE HOME LIFE OF WILD BIRDS," ETC.
IN TWO VOLUMES
ILLUSTRATED
VOLUME I
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
NEW YORK LONDON
1917
COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
Printed in the United States of America
TO
ELIZABETH
MY
SISTER
PREFACE
The origin of the gifted ornithologist, animal painter, and writer, known to the world as John James Audubon, has remained a mystery up to the present time. In now lifting the veil which was cast over his early existence, I feel that I serve the cause of historical truth; at the same time it is possible to do fuller justice to all most intimately concerned with the story of his life and accomplishments.
The present work is in reality the outcome of what was first undertaken as a holiday recreation in the summer of 1903. While engaged upon a research of quite a different character, I reread, with greater care, Audubon's Ornithological Biography, and after turning the leaves of his extraordinary illustrations, it seemed to me most strange that but little should be known of the making of so original and masterful a character. As I was in England at the time some investigations were undertaken in London, but, as might have been expected, with rather barren results. After my return to America in the following year the search was continued, but as it proved equally fruitless here, the subject was set aside. Not until 1913, when this investigation was resumed in France, did I meet with success.
Every man, however poor or inconsequential he may appear or be, is supposed to possess an estate, and every man of affairs is almost certain to leave behind him domestic, professional, or commercial papers, which are, in some degree, a mark of his attainments and an indication of his character and tastes. In the summer of 1913 I went to France in search of the personal records of the naturalist's father, Lieutenant Jean Audubon, whose home had been at Nantes and in the little commune of Couëron, nine miles below that city, on the right bank of the Loire. The part which Lieutenant Audubon played in the French Revolution was fully revealed in his letters, his reports to the Central Committee, and numerous other documents which are preserved in the archives of the Préfecture at Nantes; while complete records of his naval career both in the merchant marine and governmental service (service pour l'État) were subsequently obtained at Paris; but at Nantes his name had all but vanished, and little could be learned of his immediate family, which had been nearly extinct in France for over thirty years.
Again the quest seemed likely to prove futile until a letter, which I received through the kindness of Mr. Louis Goldschmidt, then American Consul at Nantes, to M. Giraud Gangie, conservateur of the public library in that city, brought a response, under date of December 29, 1913, informing me that two years before that time, he had met by chance in the streets of Couëron a retired notary who assured him that he held in possession numerous exact records of Jean Audubon and his family. The sage Henry Thoreau once remarked that you might search long and diligently for a rare bird, and then of a sudden surprise the whole family at dinner. So it happened in this case, and since these manuscript records, sought by many in vain on this side of the Atlantic, are so important for this history, the reader is entitled to an account of them.
Upon corresponding with the gentleman in question, M. L. Lavigne, I was informed that the documents in his possession were of the most varied description, comprising letters, wills, deeds, certificates of births, baptisms, adoptions, marriages and deaths, to the number, it is believed, of several hundred pieces. This unique and extraordinary collection of Audubonian records had been slumbering in a house in the commune of Couëron called "Les Tourterelles" ("The Turtle Doves") for nearly a hundred years, or since the death of the naturalist's stepmother in 1821.
Since I was unable to judge of the authenticity of the documents or to visit France at that time, my friend, Professor Gustav G. Laubscher, who happened to be in Paris, engaged in investigating Romance literary subjects, kindly consented to go to Couëron for the purpose of inspecting them. Monsieur Lavigne had already prepared for me, and still held, a number of photographs of the most important manuscripts, which are now for the first time reproduced, and, with the aid of a stenographer, in the course of two or three days they were able to transcribe the most essential and interesting parts of this voluminous material. But at that very moment sinister clouds were blackening the skies of Europe, and my friend was obliged to leave his task unfinished and hasten to Paris; when he arrived in that city, on the memorable Saturday of August 1, 1914, orders for the mobilization of troops had been posted; it was some time before copies of the manuscripts were received from Couëron, and he left the French capital to return to America.
These documents came into the hands of Monsieur Lavigne through his wife, who was a daughter and legatee of Gabriel Loyen du Puigaudeau, the second, son of Gabriel Loyen du Puigaudeau, the son-in-law of Lieutenant and Mme. Jean Audubon. Gabriel Loyen du Puigaudeau, the second, who died at Couëron in 1892, is thought to have destroyed all letters of the naturalist which had been in possession of the family and which were written previous to 1820, when his relations with the elder Du Puigaudeau were broken off; not a line in the handwriting of John James Audubon has been preserved at Couëron.
In June and July, 1914, Dr. Laubscher had repeatedly applied to the French Foreign Office, through the American Embassy at Paris, for permission to examine the dossier of Jean Audubon in the archives of the Department of the Marine, in order to verify certain dates in his naval career and to obtain the personal reports which he submitted upon his numerous battles at sea, but at that period of strain it was impossible to gain further access to the papers sought.
Having told the story of the way in which these unique and important records came into my possession, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Laubscher for his able cooperation in securing transcriptions and photographs, and to Monsieur Lavigne for his kind permission to use them, as well as for his careful response to numerous questions which arose in the course of the investigation.
In dealing with letters and documents, of whatever kind, in manuscript, I have made it my invariable rule to reproduce the form and substance of the record as it exists as exactly as possible; in translations, however, no attempt has been made to preserve any minor idiosyncrasies of the writer. The source of all scientific, literary or historical material previously published is indicated in footnotes, and the reader will find copious references to hitherto unpublished documents, which in their complete and original form, with or without translations, together with an annotated Bibliography, have been gathered in Appendices at the end of Volume II. For convenience of reference each chapter has been treated as a unit so far as the footnotes are concerned, and the quoted author's name, with the title of his work in addition to the bibliographic number, has been given in nearly every instance.
Besides the many coadjutors whose friendly aid has been gladly acknowledged in the body of this work, I now wish to offer my sincere thanks, in particular, to the Misses Maria R. and Florence Audubon, granddaughters of the naturalist, who have shown me many courtesies, and to the Hon. Myron T. Herrick, late American Ambassador to France, for his kindly assistance in obtaining documentary transcripts from the Department of the Marine at Paris. I am under special obligations also to the librarians of the British Museum and Oxford University, the Linnæan and Zoölogical Societies of London, the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, the Public Libraries of Boston and New York, and the libraries of the Historical Societies of New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Louisiana, as well as to the Director of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy of Harvard University, and to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, for photographs of paintings and other objects, for permission to read or copy manuscripts, and for favors of various sorts. Furthermore, I am indebted to the good offices of Mr. Ferdinand Lathrop Mayer, Secretary of Legation, Port-au-Prince, and of M. Fontaine, American Consular Agent at Les Cayes, Haiti, for a series of photographs made expressly to represent Les Cayes as it appears today. I would also acknowledge the courtesy of the Corporation of Trinity Parish, New York, through Mr. Pendleton Dudley, for an excellent photograph of the Audubon Monument.
I cannot express too fully my appreciation of the hearty response which the publishers of these volumes have given to every question concerned with their presentation in an adequate and attractive form, and particularly to Mr. Francis G. Wickware, of D. Appleton and Company, to whose knowledge, skill, and unabated interest the reader, like myself, is indebted in manifold ways.
My friend, Mr. Ruthven Deane, well known for his investigations in Auduboniana and American ornithological literature, has not only read the proofs of the text, but has generously placed at my disposal many valuable notes, references, pictures, letters and other documents, drawn from his own researches and valuable personal collections. I wish to express in the most particular manner also my appreciation of the generous spirit in which Mr. Joseph Y. Jeanes has opened the treasures in his possession, embracing not only large numbers of hitherto unpublished letters, but an unrivaled collection of early unpublished Audubonian drawings, for the enrichment and embellishment of these pages. For the loan or transcription of other original manuscript material, or for supplying much needed data of every description, I am further most indebted to Mr. Welton H. Rozier, of St. Louis; Mr. Tom J. Rozier, of Ste. Geneviève; Mr. C. A. Rozier, of St. Louis; the Secretary of the Linnæan Society of London, through my friend, Mr. George E. Bullen, of St. Albans; Mr. Henry R. Rowland of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, of Buffalo; Mr. William Beer, of the Howard Memorial Library, of New Orleans; and Mr. W. H. Wetherill, of Philadelphia. For the use of new photographic and other illustrative material, I am further indebted to Mr. Stanley Clisby Arthur, of the Conservation Commission of Louisiana, and to Cassinia, the medium of publication of the Delaware Valley Ornithological Club.
Through the kindness of Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons I have been permitted to draw rather freely from Audubon and His Journals, by Miss Maria R. Audubon and Elliott Coues, and to reproduce three portraits therefrom; original photographs of two of these have been kindly supplied by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt. I also owe to the courtesy of the Girard Trust Company, of Philadelphia, the privilege of quoting certain letters contained in William Healey Dall's Spencer Fullerton Baird.
To my esteemed colleague, Professor Benjamin P. Bourland, I am under particular obligations for his invaluable aid in revising translations from the French and in the transliteration of manuscripts, as well as for his kindly assistance in correspondence on related subjects. I have derived much benefit also from my sister, Miss Elizabeth A. Herrick, who has made many valuable suggestions. To all others who have aided me by will or deed in the course of this work I wish to express my cordial thanks.
FRANCIS H. HERRICK.
_Western Reserve University,
Cleveland._
July 2, 1917.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME I
PAGE
PREFACE vii
CHRONOLOGY xxv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Audubon's growing fame—Experience in Paris in 1828—Cuvier's patronage—Audubon's publications—His critics—His talents and accomplishments—His Americanism and honesty of purpose—His foibles and faults—Appreciations and monuments—The Audubon Societies—Biographies and autobiography—Robert Buchanan and the true history of his Life of Audubon 1
CHAPTER II
JEAN AUDUBON AND HIS FAMILY
Extraordinary career of the naturalist's father—Wounded at fourteen and prisoner of war for five years in England—Service in the French merchant marine and navy—Voyages to Newfoundland and Santo Domingo—His marriage in France—His sea fights, capture and imprisonment in New York—His command at the Battle of Yorktown—Service in America and encounters with British privateers 24
CHAPTER III
JEAN AUDUBON AS SANTO DOMINGO PLANTER AND MERCHANT
Captain Audubon at Les Cayes—As planter, sugar refiner, general merchant and slave dealer, amasses a fortune—His return to France with his children—History of the Santo Domingo revolt—Baron de Wimpffen's experience—Revolution of the whites—Opposition of the abolitionists—Effect of the Declaration of Rights on the mulattoes—The General Assembly drafts a new constitution—First blood drawn between revolutionists and loyalists at Port-au-Prince—Ogé's futile attempt to liberate the mulattoes—Les Cayes first touched by revolution in 1790, four years after the death of Audubon's mother—Emancipation of the mulattoes—Resistance of the whites—General revolt of blacks against whites and the ruin of the colony 36
CHAPTER IV
AUDUBON'S BIRTH, NATIONALITY, AND PARENTAGE
Les Cayes—Audubon's French Creole mother—His early names—Discovery of the Sanson bill with the only record of his birth—Medical practice of an early day—Birth of Muguet, Audubon's sister—Fougère and Muguet taken to France—Audubon's adoption and baptism—His assumed name—Dual personality in legal documents—Source of published errors—Autobiographic records—Rise of enigma and tradition—The Marigny myth 52
CHAPTER V
LIEUTENANT AUDUBON AS REVOLUTIONIST
Background of Audubon's youth—Nantes in Revolution—Revolt in La Vendée—Siege of Nantes—Reign of terror under Carrier—Plague robbing the guillotine—Flight of the population—Execution of Charette—The Chouan raid—Citizen Audubon's service—He reenters the navy and takes a prize from the English—His subsequent naval career—His losses in Santo Domingo—His service and rank—Retires on a pension—His death—His character and appearance 73
CHAPTER VI
SCHOOL DAYS IN FRANCE
Molding of Audubon's character—Factor of environment—Turning failure into success—An indulgent step-mother—The truant—His love of nature—Early drawings and discipline—Experience at Rochefort—Baptized in the Roman Catholic Church 90
CHAPTER VII
FIRST VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES, AND LIFE AT "MILL GROVE"
Audubon is sent to the United States to learn English and enter trade—Taken ill—Befriended by the Quakers—Settles at "Mill Grove" farm—Its history and attractions—Studies of American birds begun—Engagement to Lucy Bakewell—Sports and festivities 98
CHAPTER VIII
DACOSTA AND THE "MILL GROVE" MINE
Advent of a new agent at "Mill Grove"—Dacosta becomes guardian to young Audubon and exploits a neglected lead mine on the farm—Correspondence of Lieutenant Audubon and Dacosta—Quarrel with Dacosta—Audubon's return to France 113
CHAPTER IX
AUDUBON'S LAST VISIT TO HIS HOME IN FRANCE
Life at Couëron—Friendship of D'Orbigny—Drawings of French birds—D'Orbigny's troubles—Marriage of Rosa Audubon—The Du Puigaudeaus—Partnership with Ferdinand Rozier—Their Articles of Association—They sail from Nantes, are overhauled by British privateers, but land safely at New York—Settle at "Mill Grove" 127
CHAPTER X
"LA GERBETIÈRE" OF YESTERDAY AND TODAY
Home of Audubon's youth at Couëron—Its situation on the Loire—History of the villa and commune—Changes of a century 136
CHAPTER XI
FIRST VENTURES IN BUSINESS AT NEW YORK, AND SEQUEL TO THE "MILL GROVE" MINE
Audubon and Rosier at "Mill Grove"—Their partnership rules—Attempts to form a mining company lead to disappointment—Decision to sell their remaining interests in "Mill Grove" to Dacosta—Division of the property and legal entanglements—Audubon as a clerk in New York—Business correspondence and letters to his father—Later history of the lead mine and Dacosta—Audubon continues his drawings in New York and works for Dr. Mitchell's Museum—Forsakes the counting-room for the fields—Personal sketch 146
CHAPTER XII
EARLY DRAWINGS IN FRANCE AND AMERICA
Child and man—His ideals, perseverance and progress—Study under David at Paris—David's pupils and studios—David at Nantes arouses the enthusiasm of its citizens—His part in the Revolution—His art and influence over Audubon—Audubon's drawings of French birds—Story of the Edward Harris collection—The Birds of America in the bud—Audubon's originality, style, methods, and mastery of materials and technique—His problem and how he solved it—His artistic defects 173
CHAPTER XIII
AUDUBON'S MARRIAGE AND SETTLEMENT IN THE WEST
Audubon and Rozier decide to start a pioneer store at Louisville, Kentucky—Their purchase of goods in New York—"Westward Ho" with Rozier—Rozier's diary of the journey—An unfortunate investment in indigo—Effect of the Embargo Act—Marriage to Lucy Bakewell—Return to Louisville—Life on the Ohio—Depression of trade—William Bakewell's assistance—Audubon's eldest son born at the "Indian Queen"—The Bakewells—Life at Louisville 186
CHAPTER XIV
A MEETING OF RIVALS, AND SKETCH OF ANOTHER PIONEER
Alexander Wilson and his American Ornithology—His canvassing tour of 1810—His retort to a Solomon of the bench—Descriptions of Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and Louisville—Meeting with Audubon—Journey to New Orleans—Youth in Scotland—Weaver, itinerant peddler, poet and socialist—Sent to jail for libel—Emigrates to the United States—Finally settles as a school teacher near Philadelphia—His friendships with Bartram and Lawson—Disappointments in love—Early studies of American birds—His drawings, thrift, talents and genius—Publication of his Ornithology—His travels, discouragements and success—His premature death—Conflicting accounts of the visit to Audubon given by the two naturalists—Rivalry between the friends of Wilson, dead, and those of Audubon, living—The controversy which followed—An evasive "Flycatcher"—Singular history of the Mississippi Kite plate 202
CHAPTER XV
EXPERIMENTS IN TRADE ON THE FRONTIER
The Ohio a hundred years ago—Hardships of the pioneer trader—Audubon's long journeys by overland trail or river to buy goods—The "ark" and keelboat—Chief pleasures of the naturalist at Louisville—The partners move their goods by flatboat to Henderson, Kentucky, and then to Ste. Geneviève (Missouri)—Held up by the ice—Adventures with the Indians—Mississippi in flood—Camp at the Great Bend—Abundance of game—Breaking up of the ice—Settle at Ste. Geneviève—The partnership dissolved—Audubon's return to Henderson—Rozier's successful career—His old store at Ste. Geneviève 233
CHAPTER XVI
AUDUBON'S MILL AND FINAL REVERSES IN BUSINESS
Dr. Rankin's "Meadow Brook Farm"—Birth of John Woodhouse Audubon—The Audubon-Bakewell partnership—Meeting with Nolte—Failure of the commission business—Visit to Rozier—Storekeeping at Henderson—Purchases of land—Habits of frontier tradesmen—Steamboats on the Ohio—Popular pastimes—Audubon-Bakewell-Pears partnership—Their famous steam mill—Mechanical and financial troubles—Business reorganization—Bankruptcy general—Failure of the mill—Personal encounter—Audubon goes to jail for debt 247
CHAPTER XVII
THE ENIGMA OF AUDUBON'S LIFE AND THE HISTORY OF HIS FAMILY IN FRANCE
Death of Lieutenant Audubon—Contest over his will—Disposition of his estate—The fictitious $17,000—Unsettled claims of Formon and Ross—Illusions of biographers—Gabriel Loyen du Puigaudeau—Audubon's relations with the family in France broken—Death of the naturalist's stepmother—The Du Puigaudeaus—Sources of "enigma." 262
CHAPTER XVIII
EARLY EPISODES OF WESTERN LIFE
Methods of composition—"A Wild Horse"—Henderson to Philadelphia in 1811—Records of Audubon and Nolte, fellow travelers, compared—The great earthquakes—The hurricane—The outlaw—Characterization of Daniel Boone—Desperate plight on the prairie—Regulator law in action—Frontier necessities—The ax married to the grindstone 273
CHAPTER XIX
AUDUBON AND RAFINESQUE
The "Eccentric Naturalist" at Henderson—Bats and new species—The demolished violin—"M. de T.": Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (Schmaltz)—His precocity, linguistic acquirements and peripatetic habits—First visit to America and botanical studies—Residence in Sicily, and fortune made in the drug trade—Association with Swainson—Marriage and embitterment—His second journey to America ends in shipwreck—Befriended—Descends Ohio in a flat-boat—Visit with Audubon, who gives him many strange "new species"—Cost to zoölogy—His unique work on Ohio fishes—Professorship in Transylvania University—Quarrel with its president and trustees—Return to Philadelphia—His ardent love of nature; his writings, and fatal versatility—His singular will—His sad end and the ruthless disposition of his estate 285
CHAPTER XX
AUDUBON'S ÆNEID, 1819-1824: WANDERINGS THROUGH THE WEST AND SOUTH
Pivotal period in Audubon's career—His spur and balance wheel—Resort to portraiture—Taxidermist in the Western Museum—Settles in Cincinnati—History of his relations with Dr. Drake—Decides to make his avocation his business—Journey down the Ohio and Mississippi with Mason and Cummings—Experiences of travel without a cent of capital—Life in New Orleans—Vanderlyn's recommendation—Original drawings—Chance meeting with Mrs. Pirrie and engagement as tutor at "Oakley"—Enchantments of West Feliciana—"My lovely Miss Pirrie"—The jealous doctor—Famous drawing of the rattlesnake—Leaves St. Francisville and is adrift again in New Orleans—Obtains pupils in drawing and is joined by his family—Impoverished, moves to Natchez, and Mrs. Audubon becomes a governess—Injuries to his drawings—The labors of years destroyed by rats—Teaching in Tennessee—Parting with Mason—First lessons in oils—Mrs. Audubon's school at "Beechwoods"—Painting tour fails—Stricken at Natchez—At the Percys' plantation—Walk to Louisville—Settles at Shippingport 301
CHAPTER XXI
DÉBUT AS A NATURALIST
Makes his bow at Philadelphia—Is greeted with plaudits and cold water—Friendship of Harlan, Sully, Bonaparte and Harris—Hostility of Ord, Lawson and other friends of Alexander Wilson—A meeting of academicians—Visit to "Mill Grove"—Exhibits drawings in New York and becomes a member of the Lyceum—At the Falls of Niagara—In a gale on Lake Erie—Episode at Meadville—Walk to Pittsburgh—Tour of Lakes Ontario and Champlain—Decides to take his drawings to Europe—Descends the Ohio in a skiff—Stranded at Cincinnati—Teaching at St. Francisville 327
CHAPTER XXII
TO EUROPE AND SUCCESS
Audubon sails from New Orleans—Life at sea—Liverpool—The Rathbones—Exhibition of drawings an immediate success—Personal appearance—Painting habits resumed—His pictures and methods—Manchester visited—Plans for publication—The Birds of America—Welcome at Edinburgh—Lizars engraves the Turkey Cock—In the rôle of society's lion—His exhibition described by a French critic—Honors of science and the arts—Contributions to journals excite criticism—Aristocratic patrons—Visit to Scott—The Wild Pigeon and the rattlesnake—Letter to his wife—Prospectus—Journey to London 347
CHAPTER XXIII
AUDUBON IN LONDON
Impressions of the metropolis—A trunk full of letters—Friendship of Children—Sir Thomas Lawrence—Lizars stops work—A family of artists—Robert Havell, Junior—The Birds of America fly to London—The Zoölogical Gallery—Crisis in the naturalist's affairs—Royal patronage—Interview with Gallatin—Interesting the Queen—Desertion of patrons—Painting to independence—Personal habits and tastes—Enters the Linnæan Society—The white-headed Eagle—Visit to the great universities—Declines to write for magazines—Audubon-Swainson correspondence—"Highfield Hall" near Tyttenhanger—In Paris with Swainson—Glimpses of Cuvier—His report on The Birds of America—Patronage of the French Government and the Duke of Orleans—Bonaparte the naturalist 377
CHAPTER XXIV
FIRST VISIT TO AMERICA IN SEARCH OF NEW BIRDS
Settles for a time in Camden—Paints in a fisherman's cottage by the sea—With the lumbermen in the Great Pine Woods—Work done—Visits his sons—Joins his wife at St. Francisville—Record of journey south—Life at "Beechgrove"—Mrs. Audubon retires from teaching—Their plans to return to England—Meeting with President Jackson and Edward Everett 420
CHAPTER XXV
AUDUBON'S LETTERPRESS AND ITS RIVALS
Settlement in London—Starts on canvassing tour with his wife—Change of plans—In Edinburgh—Discovery of MacGillivray—His hand in the Ornithological Biography—Rival editions of Wilson and Bonaparte—Brown's extraordinary Atlas—Reception of the Biography—Joseph Bartholomew Kidd and the Ornithological Gallery—In London again 437
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I
Audubon. After a photograph of a cast of the intaglio cut by John C. King in 1844. Embossed medallion Cover
Audubon. After the engraving by C. Turner, A.R.A., of the miniature on ivory painted by Frederick Cruikshank about 1831; "London. Published Jan. 12, 1835, for the Proprietor [supposed to have been the engraver, but may have been Audubon or Havell], by Robert Havell, Printseller, 77, Oxford Street." Photogravure Frontispiece
PAGE Statue of Audubon by Edward Virginius Valentine in Audubon Park, New Orleans Facing 14
The Audubon Monument in Trinity Cemetery, New York, on Children's Day, June, 1915 Facing 14
Les Cayes, Haiti: the wharf and postoffice Facing 40
Les Cayes, Haiti: the market and Church of Sacré Cœur Facing 40
First page of the bill rendered by Dr. Sanson, of Les Cayes, Santo Domingo, to Jean Audubon for medical services from December 29, 1783, to October 19, 1785 Facing 54
Second page of the Sanson bill, bearing, in the entry for April 26, 1785, the only record known to exist of the date of Audubon's birth Facing 55
Third page of the Sanson bill, signed as accepted by Jean Audubon, October 12, 1786, and receipted by the doctor, when paid, June 7, 1787 Facing 59
Audubon's signature at various periods. From early drawings, legal documents and letters Facing 63
Lieutenant Jean Audubon and Anne Moynet Audubon. After portraits painted between 1801 and 1806, now at Couëron Facing 78
Jean Audubon. After a portrait painted by the American artist Polk, at Philadelphia, about 1789 Facing 78
Jean Audubon's signature. From a report to the Directory of his Department, when acting as Civil Commissioner, January to September, 1793 79
Certificate of Service which Lieutenant Audubon received upon his discharge from the French Navy, February 26, 1801 84
"Mill Grove" in 1835 (about). After a water-color painting by Charles Wetherill Facing 102
"Mill Grove," Audubon, Pennsylvania, as it appears to-day Facing 102
"Mill Grove" farmhouse, west front, as it appears to-day Facing 110
"Fatland Ford," Audubon, Pennsylvania, the girlhood home of Lucy Bakewell Audubon Facing 110
Early drawings of French birds, 1805, hitherto unpublished: the male Reed Bunting ("Sedge Sparrow"), and the male Redstart Facing 128
Receipt given by Captain Sammis of the Polly to Audubon and Ferdinand Rozier for their passage money from Nantes to New York, May 28, 1806 134
"La Gerbetière," Jean Audubon's country villa at Couëron, France, and the naturalist's boyhood home Facing 136
"La Gerbetière" and Couëron, as seen from the highest point in the commune, windmill towers on the ridge overlooking Port Launay, on the Loire Facing 142
"La Gerbetière," as seen when approached from Couëron village by the road to Port Launay Facing 142
Port Launay on the Loire Facing 142
Beginning of the "Articles of Association" of John James Audubon and Ferdinand Rozier, signed at Nantes, March 23, 1806 Facing 146
First page of a power of attorney granted by Jean Audubon, Anne Moynet Audubon and Claude François Rozier to John James Audubon and Ferdinand Rozier, Nantes, April 4, 1806 Facing 152
Signatures of Jean Audubon, Anne Moynet Audubon, Dr. Chapelain and Dr. Charles d'Orbigny to a power of attorney granted to John James Audubon and Ferdinand Rozier, Couëron, November 20, 1806 Facing 153
Early drawings of French birds, 1805, hitherto unpublished: the European Crow, with detail of head of the Rook, and the White Wagtail Facing 174
Early drawing in crayon point of the groundhog, 1805, hitherto unpublished Facing 182
Water-color drawing of a young raccoon, 1841 Facing 182
Alexander Wilson Facing 212
William Bartram Facing 212
The "twin" Mississippi Kites of Wilson and Audubon, the similarity of which inspired charges of misappropriation against Audubon Facing 228
Audubon's signature to the release given to Ferdinand Rozier on the dissolution of their partnership in 1811 242
Ferdinand Rozier in his eighty-fifth year (1862) Facing 246
Rozier's old store at Ste. Geneviève, Kentucky Facing 246
Letter of Audubon to Ferdinand Rozier, signed "Audubon & Bakewell," and dated October 19, 1813, during the first partnership under this style Facing 246
Audubon's Mill at Henderson, Kentucky, since destroyed, as seen from the bank of the Ohio River Facing 254
An old street in the Couëron of today Facing 264
"Les Tourterelles," Couëron, final home of Anne Moynet Audubon, and the resting-place of exact records of the naturalist's birth and early life Facing 264
Early drawings of American birds, 1808-9, hitherto unpublished: the Belted Kingfisher and the Wild Pigeon Facing 292
Bayou Sara Landing, West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana, at the junction of Bayou Sara and the Mississippi River Facing 314
Scene on Bayou Sara Creek, Audubon's hunting ground in 1821 Facing 314
Road leading from Bayou Sara Landing to the village of St. Francisville, West Feliciana Parish Facing 318
"Oakley," the James Pirrie plantation house near St. Francisville, where Audubon made some of his famous drawings while acting as a tutor in 1821 Facing 318
An early letter of Audubon to Edward Harris, written at Philadelphia, July 14, 1824 332
Note of Dr. Samuel Latham Mitchell, written hurriedly in pencil, recommending Audubon to his friend, Dr. Barnes, August 4, 1824 337
Crayon portrait of Miss Jennett Benedict, an example of Audubon's itinerant portraiture. After the original drawn by Audubon at Meadville, Pennsylvania, in 1824 Facing 342
Miss Eliza Pirrie, Audubon's pupil at "Oakley" in 1821. After an oil portrait Facing 342
Early drawing of the "Frog-eater," Cooper's Hawk, 1810, hitherto unpublished Facing 348
Pencil sketch of a "Shark, 7 feet long, off Cuba," from Audubon's Journal of his voyage to England in 1826 Facing 348
First page of Audubon's Journal of his voyage from New Orleans to Liverpool in 1826 Facing 349
Cock Turkey, The Birds of America, Plate I. After the original engraving by W. H. Lizars, retouched by Robert Havell. Color Facing 358
Title page of the original edition of The Birds of America, Volume II, 1831-1834 381
The Prothonotary Warbler plates, The Birds of America, Plate XI, bearing the legends of the engravers, W. H. Lizars and Robert Havell, Jr., but identical in every other detail of engraving Facing 384
Reverse of panels of Robert Havell's advertising folder reproduced on facing insert 386
Outside engraved panels of an advertising folder issued by Robert Havell about 1834. After the only original copy known to exist 386
Inside engraved panels of Robert Havell's advertising folder, showing the interior of the "Zoölogical Gallery," 77 Oxford Street Facing 387
Reverse of panels of Robert Havell's advertising folder, reproduced on facing insert 387
Title page of Audubon's Prospectus of The Birds of America for 1831 391
English Pheasants surprised by a Spanish Dog. After a painting by Audubon in the American Museum of Natural History Facing 394
Letter of William Swainson to Audubon, May, 1828 402
Audubon. After an oil portrait, hitherto unpublished, painted about 1826 by W. H. Holmes Facing 412
Part of letter of Charles Lucien Bonaparte to Audubon, January 10, 1829 417
Mrs. Dickie's "Boarding Residence," 26 George Street, Edinburgh, where Audubon painted and wrote in 1826-27, and in 1830-31 Facing 438
The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. After an old print Facing 438
Title page of the Ornithological Biography, Volume I 441
CHRONOLOGY
1785
April 26.—Fougère, Jean Rabin, or Jean Jacques Fougère Audubon, born at Les Cayes, Santo Domingo, now Haiti.
1789
Fougère, at four years, and Muguet, his sister by adoption, at two, are taken by their father to the United States, and thence to France.
1794
March 7 (17 ventose, an 2).—Fougère, when nine years old, and Muguet at six, are legally adopted as the children of Jean Audubon and Anne Moynet, his wife.
1800
October 23 (1 brumaire, an 9).—Baptized, Jean Jacques Fougère, at Nantes, when in his sixteenth year.
1802-1803
Studies drawing for a brief period under Jacques Louis David, at Paris.
1803
First return to America, at eighteen, to learn English and enter trade: settles at "Mill Grove" farm, near Philadelphia, where he spends a year and begins his studies of American birds.
1804
December 15.—Half-interest in "Mill Grove" acquired by Francis Dacosta, who begins to exploit its lead mine; he also acts as guardian to young Audubon, who becomes engaged to Lucy Green Bakewell; quarrel with Dacosta follows.
1805
January 12-15 (?).—Walks to New York, where Benjamin Bakewell supplies him with passage money to France.
January 18 (about).—Sails on the Hope for Nantes, and arrives about March 18.
A year spent at "La Gerbetière," in Couëron, where he hunts birds with D'Orbigny and makes many drawings, and at Nantes, where plans are made for his return, with Ferdinand Rozier, to America.
1806
Enters the French navy at this time, or earlier, but soon withdraws.
March 23.—A business partnership is arranged with Ferdinand Rozier, and Articles of Association are signed at Nantes.
April 12.—Sails with Rozier on the Polly, Captain Sammis, and lands in New York on May 26.
They settle at "Mill Grove" farm, where they remain less than four months, meanwhile making unsuccessful attempts to operate the lead mine on the property.
September 15.—Remaining half interest in "Mill Grove" farm and mine acquired by Francis Dacosta & Company, conditionally, the Audubons and Roziers holding a mortgage.
1806-1807
Serves as clerk in Benjamin Bakewell's commission house in New York, but continues his studies and drawings of birds, and works for Dr. Mitchell's Museum.
1807
With Rozier decides to embark in trade in Kentucky.
August 1.—They purchase their first stock of goods in New York.
August 31.—Starts with Rozier for Louisville, where they open a pioneer store.
Their business suffers from the Embargo Act.
1808
June 12.—Married to Lucy Bakewell at "Fatland Ford," her father's farm near Philadelphia, and returns with his bride to Louisville.
1809
June 12.—Victor Gifford Audubon born at Gwathway's hotel, the "Indian Queen," in Louisville.
1810
March.—Alexander Wilson, pioneer ornithologist, visits Audubon at Louisville.
Moves down river with Rozier to Redbanks (Henderson), Kentucky.
December.—Moves with Rozier again, and is held up by ice at the mouth of the Ohio and at the Great Bend of the Mississippi, where they spend the winter.
1811
Reaches Sainte Geneviève, Upper Louisiana (Missouri), in early spring.
April 6.—Dissolves partnership with Rozier, and returns to Henderson afoot.
Joins in a commission business with his brother-in-law, Thomas W. Bakewell.
December.—Meets Vincent Nolte when returning to Louisville from the East, and descends the Ohio in his flatboat.
1812
The annus mirabilis in Kentucky, marked by a series of earthquakes, which begins December 16, 1811, and furnishes material for "Episodes."
Commission house of Audubon and Bakewell is opened by the latter in New Orleans, but is quickly suppressed by the war, which breaks out in June.
Spring.—Starts a retail store, on his own account, at Henderson.
November 30.—John Woodhouse Audubon, born at "Meadow Brook" farm, Dr. Adam Rankin's home near Henderson.
1812-1813
Storekeeping at Henderson, where he purchases four town lots and settles down.
1816
March 16.—Enters into another partnership with Bakewell; planning to build a steam grist- and sawmill at Henderson, they lease land on the river front.
1817
Thomas W. Pears joins the partnership, and the steam mill, which later became famous, is erected. (After long disuse or conversion to other purposes, "Audubon's Mill" was finally burned to the ground on March 18, 1913.)
1818
Summer.—Receives a visit from Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, who becomes the subject of certain practical jokes, at zoölogy's future expense, and figures in a later "Episode."
1819
After repeated change of partners, the mill enterprise fails, and Audubon goes to Louisville jail for debt; declares himself a bankrupt, and saves only his clothes, his drawings and gun. Resorts to doing crayon portraits at Shippingport and Louisville, where he is immediately successful.
1819-1820
At Cincinnati, to fill an appointment as taxidermist in the Western Museum, just founded by Dr. Daniel Drake; settles with his family and works three or four months, at a salary of $125 a month; then returns to portraits, and starts a drawing school.
1820
Decides to publish his "Ornithology," and all his activities are now directed to this end.
October 12.—Leaves his family, and with Joseph R. Mason, as pupil-assistant, starts without funds on a long expedition down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, to New Orleans, hoping to visit Arkansas, and intending to explore the country for birds, while living by his talents: from this time keeps a regular journal and works systematically.
1821
January 7.—Enters New Orleans with young Mason without enough money to pay for a night's lodging.
February 17.—Sends his wife 20 drawings, including the famous Turkey Hen, Great-footed Hawk, and White-headed Eagle.
Obtains a few drawing pupils; is recommended by John Vanderlyn and Governor Robertson, but lives from hand to mouth until June 16, when Audubon and Mason leave for Shippingport; a fellow passenger, Mrs. James Pirrie, of West Feliciana, offers Audubon a position as tutor to her daughter, and with Mason he settles on her plantation at St. Francisville, Bayou Sara, where he remains nearly five months; some of his finest drawings are made at this time.
October 21.—Leaves abruptly and returns with Mason to New Orleans, where he again becomes a drawing teacher, and resumes his studies of birds with even greater avidity.
December.—Is joined by his family, and winter finds them in dire straits.
1822
March 16.—To Natchez with Mason, paying their passage by doing portraits of the captain and his wife; while on the way finds that many of his drawings have been seriously damaged by gunpowder; teaches French, drawing and dancing at Natchez, and Washington, Mississippi.
July 23.—Parts with Mason, after giving him his gun, paper and chalks, with which to work his way north.
September.—Mrs. Audubon, who was acting as governess in a family at New Orleans, joins him at Natchez, where she obtains a similar position.
Receives his first lessons in the use of oils from John Stein, itinerant portrait painter, in Natchez, at close of this year.
1823
January.—Mrs. Audubon is engaged by the Percys, of West Feliciana parish, Louisiana, and starts a private school at "Beechwoods," belonging to their plantation, in St. Francisville, where she remains five years.
March.—Audubon leaves Natchez with John Stein and Victor on a painting tour of the South, but meeting with little success, they disband at New Orleans; visits his wife, and spends part of summer in teaching her pupils music and drawing.
Adrift again; both he and Victor are taken ill with fever at Natchez, but when nursed back to health by Mrs. Audubon, they return with her to "Beechwoods."
September 30.—Determined to visit Philadelphia in the interests of his "Ornithology," he sends on his drawings and goes to New Orleans for references.
October 3.—Starts with Victor for Louisville, walking part of the way.
1823-1824
Winter spent at Shippingport, where Victor becomes a clerk to his uncle, Nicholas A. Berthoud.
Paints portraits, panels on river boats, and even street signs, to earn a living.
1824
To Philadelphia, to find patrons or a publisher; thwarted; is advised to take his drawings to Europe, where the engraving could be done in superior style; befriended by Charles L. Bonaparte, Edward Harris, Richard Harlan, Mr. Fairman, and Thomas Sully, who gives him free tuition in oils.
August 1.—Starts for New York, with letters to Gilbert Stuart, Washington Allston, and Samuel L. Mitchell; is kindly received and made a member of the Lyceum of Natural History.
August 15.—To Albany, Rochester, Buffalo, Niagara Falls, Meadville, and Pittsburgh, taking deck passage on boats, tramping, and paying his way by crayon portraits.
September.—Leaves Pittsburgh on exploring tour of Lakes Ontario and Champlain for birds; decides on his future course.
October 24.—Returns to Pittsburgh, and descends the Ohio in a skiff; is stranded without a cent at Cincinnati; visits Victor at Shippingport, and reaches his wife in St. Francisville, Bayou Sara, November 24.
1825-1826
Teaches at St. Francisville, and gives dancing lessons at Woodville, Mississippi, to raise funds to go to Europe.
1826
May 17.—Sails with his drawings on the cotton schooner Delos, bound for Liverpool, where he lands, a total stranger, on July 21.
In less than a week is invited to exhibit his drawings at the Royal Institution, and is at once proclaimed as a great American genius.
Exhibits at Manchester, but with less success.
Plans to publish his drawings, to be called The Birds of America, in parts of five plates each, at 2 guineas a part, all to be engraved on copper, to the size of life, and colored after his originals. The number of parts was at first fixed at 80, and the period of publication at 14 years; eventually there were 87 parts, of 435 plates, representing over a thousand individual birds as well as thousands of American trees, shrubs, flowers, insects and other animals of the entire continent; the cost in England was £174, which was raised by the duties to $1,000 in America.
Paints animal pictures to pay his way, and opens a subscription book.
October 26.—Reaches Edinburgh, where his pictures attract the attention of the ablest scientific and literary characters of the day, and he is patronized by the aristocracy.
November, early.—William Home Lizars begins the engraving of his first plates at Edinburgh, and on the 28th, shows him the proof of the Turkey Cock.
Honors come to him rapidly, and he is soon elected to membership in the leading societies of science and the arts in Great Britain, France and the United States.
1827
February 3.—Exhibits the first number of his engraved plates at the Royal Institution of Edinburgh.
March 17.—Issues his "Prospectus," when two numbers of his Birds are ready.
April 5.—Starts for London with numerous letters to distinguished characters and obtains subscriptions on the way.
May 21.—Reaches London, and exhibits his plates before the Linnæan and Royal Societies, which later elect him to fellowship.
Lizars throws up the work after engraving ten plates, and it is transferred to London, where, in the hands of Robert Havell, Junior, it is new born and brought to successful completion eleven years later.
Summer.—Affairs at a crisis; resorts to painting and canvasses the larger cities.
December.—Five parts, or twenty-five plates, of The Birds of America completed.
1828
March.—Visits Cambridge and Oxford Universities; though well received, is disappointed at the number of subscribers secured, especially at Oxford.
September 1.—To Paris with William Swainson; remains eight weeks, and obtains 13 subscribers; his work is eulogized by Cuvier before the Academy of Natural Sciences, and he receives the personal subscription, as well as private commissions, from the Duke of Orleans, afterwards known as Louis Philippe.
1829
April 1.—Sails from Portsmouth on his first return to America from England, for New York, where he lands on May 1.
Summer.—Drawing birds at Great Egg Harbor, New Jersey.
September.—To Mauch Chunk, and paints for six weeks at a lumberman's cottage in the Great Pine Woods.
October.—Down the Ohio to Louisville, where he meets his two sons, one of whom he had not seen for five years; thence to St. Francisville, Bayou Sara, where he joins his wife, from whom he had been absent nearly three years.
1830
January 1.—Starts with his wife for Europe, first visiting New Orleans, Louisville, Cincinnati, Baltimore, and Washington, where he meets the President, Andrew Jackson, and is befriended by Edward Everett, who becomes one of his first American subscribers.
April 1.—Sails with Mrs. Audubon from New York for Liverpool. Settles in London; takes his seat in the Royal Society, to which he was elected on the 19th of March; resumes his painting, and in midsummer starts with his wife on a canvassing tour of the provincial towns; invites William Swainson to assist him in editing his letterpress, but a disagreement follows.
Changes his plans, and settles again in Edinburgh; meets William MacGillivray, who undertakes to assist him with his manuscript, and together they begin the first volume of the Ornithological Biography in October.
1831-1839
The Ornithological Biography, in five volumes, published at Edinburgh, and partly reissued in Philadelphia and Boston.
1831-1834
In America, exploring the North and South Atlantic coasts for birds.
1831
March.—First volume of the Ornithological Biography published, representing the text of the first 100 double-elephant folio plates.
April 15.—Returns with his wife to London.
May-July.—Visits Paris again in the interests of his publications.
August 2.—Starts with his wife on his second journey from England to America, and lands in New York on September 4.
Plans to visit Florida with two assistants, and obtains promise of aid from the Government.
October-November.—At Charleston, South Carolina, where he meets John Bachman and is taken into his home.
November 15.—Sails with his assistants in the government schooner Agnes for St. Augustine.
1832
April 15.—In revenue cutter Marion begins exploration of the east coast of Florida; proceeds to Key West, and later returns to Savannah and Charleston.
Rejoins his family at Philadelphia, and goes to Boston; there meets Dr. George Parkman, and makes many friends.
August.—Explores the coasts of Maine and New Brunswick, and ascends the St. John River for birds.
Returns to Boston, and sends his son Victor to England to take charge of his publications.
1832-1833
Winter.—In Boston, where he is attacked by a severe illness induced by overwork; quickly recovers and plans expedition to Labrador.
1833
June 6.—Sails from Eastport for the Labrador with five assistants, including his son, John Woodhouse Audubon, in the schooner Ripley chartered at his own expense.
August 31.—Returns to Eastport laden with spoils, including few new birds but many drawings.
September 7.—Reaches New York and plans an expedition to Florida.
September 25.—Visits Philadelphia and is arrested for debt, an echo of his business ventures in Kentucky; obtains subscribers at Baltimore, and in Washington meets Washington Irving, who assists him in obtaining government aid; finds patrons at Richmond and at Columbia, South Carolina.
October 24.—Reaches Charleston and changes his plans; with his wife and son passes the winter at the Bachman home, engaged in hunting, drawing and writing.
1834
The number of his American subscribers reaches 62.
April 16.—Sails with his wife and son on the packet North America from New York to England with large collections.
Settles again in Edinburgh, and begins second volume of his Biography, which is published in December.
1835
Many drawings, papers and books lost by fire in New York.
Part of summer, autumn and winter in Edinburgh, where the third volume of his Ornithological Biography is issued in December.
1836
Audubon's two sons, who have become his assistants, tour the Continent for five months, traveling and painting.
August 2.—Sails from Portsmouth on his third journey from England to the United States; lands in New York on Sept. 6 and canvasses the city.
September 13.—Hurries to Philadelphia to obtain access to the Nuttall-Townsend collection of birds, recently brought from the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast; is rebuffed, and bitter rivalries ensue; Edward Harris offers to buy the collection outright for his benefit.
September 20.—Starts on a canvassing tour to Boston, where he meets many prominent characters, and obtains a letter of commendation from Daniel Webster, who writes his name in his subscription book. Visits Salem, where subscribers are also obtained; meets Thomas M. Brewer, and Thomas Nuttall, who offers him his new birds brought from the West.
October 10.—Is visited by Washington Irving, who gives him letters to President Van Buren and recommends his work to national patronage.
October 15.—Returns to Philadelphia, where attempts to obtain permission to describe the new birds in the Nuttall-Townsend collection are renewed; he is finally permitted to purchase duplicates and describe the new forms under certain conditions.
November 10.—To Washington, to present his credentials, and is promised government aid for the projected journey to Florida and Texas.
1836-1837
Winter.—Spent with Bachman at Charleston, in waiting for his promised vessel; makes drawings of Nuttall's and Townsend's birds, and plans for a work on the Quadrupeds of North America.
1837