PLATO, AND THE OTHER COMPANIONS OF SOKRATES.
PLATO,
AND THE
OTHER COMPANIONS OF SOKRATES.
BY
GEORGE GROTE
AUTHOR OF THE 'HISTORY OF GREECE'.
A NEW EDITION.
IN FOUR VOLUMES.
VOL. IV.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1888.
The right of Translation is reserved.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXV.
PLATONIC REPUBLIC--ABSTRACT.
Declared theme of the Republic--Expansion and multiplication of the topics connected with it 1
Personages of the dialogue 2
Views of Kephalus about old age ib.
Definition of Justice by Simonides--It consists in rendering to every man what is owing to him ib.
Objections to it by Sokrates--There are cases in which it is not right to restore what is owing, or to tell the truth 3
Explanation by Polemarchus--Farther interrogations by Sokrates--Justice renders what is proper and suitable: but how? in what cases, proper? Under what circumstances is Justice useful? 4
The just man, being good for keeping property guarded, must also be good for stealing property--Analogies cited 5
Justice consists in doing good to friends, evil to enemies--But how, if a man mistakes who his friends are, and makes friends of bad men? 6
Justice consists in doing good to your friend, if really a good man: hurt to your enemy, with the like proviso. Sokrates affirms that the just man will do no hurt to any one. Definition of Simonides rejected ib.
Thrasymachus takes up the dialogue--Repulsive portrait drawn of him 7
Violence of Thrasymachus--Subdued manner of Sokrates--Conditions of useful colloquy ib.
Definition given by Thrasymachus--Justice is that which is advantageous to the more powerful. Comments by Sokrates. What if the powerful man mistakes his own advantage? 8
Correction by Thrasymachus--if the Ruler mistakes, he is pro tanto no Ruler--The Ruler, quâ Ruler--quâ Craftsman--is infallible 9
Reply by Sokrates--The Ruler, quâ infallible Craftsman, studies the interest of those whom he governs, and not his own interest ib.
Thrasymachus denies this--Justice is the good of another. The just many are worse off than the unjust One, and are forced to submit to his superior strength 10
Position laid for the subsequent debate and exposition 11
Arguments of Sokrates--Injustice is a source of weakness--Every multitude must observe justice among themselves, in order to avoid perpetual quarrels. The same about any single individual: if he is unjust, he will be at war with himself, and perpetually weak ib.
Farther argument of Sokrates--The just man is happy, the unjust man miserable--Thrasymachus is confuted and silenced. Sokrates complains that he does not yet know what Justice is ib.
Glaukon intimates that he is not satisfied with the proof, though he agrees in the opinion expressed by Sokrates. Tripartite distribution of Good--To which of the three heads does Justice belong? 12
Glaukon undertakes to set forth the case against Sokrates, though professing not to agree with it ib.
Pleading of Glaukon. Justice is in the nature of a compromise for all--a medium between what is best and what is worst 13
Comparison of the happiness of the just man derived from his justice alone, when others are unjust to him with that of the unjust man under parallel circumstances 14
Pleading of Adeimantus on the same side. He cites advice given by fathers to their sons, recommending just behaviour by reason of its consequences 15
Nobody recommends Justice per se, but only by reason of its consequences 16
Adeimantus calls upon Sokrates to recommend and enforce Justice on its own grounds, and to explain how Justice in itself benefits the mind of the just man 17
Relation of Glaukon and Adeimantus to Thrasymachus 18
Statement of the question as it stands after the speeches of Glaukon and Adeimantus. What Sokrates undertakes to prove ib.
Position to be proved by Sokrates--Justice makes the just man happy per se, whatever be its results 20
Argument of Sokrates to show what Justice is--Assumed analogy between the city and the individual ib.
Fundamental principle, to which communities of mankind owe their origin--Reciprocity of want and service between individuals--No individual can suffice to himself ib.
Moderate equipment of a sound and healthy city--Few wants 22
Enlargement of the city--Multiplied wants and services. First origin of war and strife with neighbours--It arises out of these multiplied wants ib.
Separate class of soldiers or Guardians. One man cannot do well more than one business. Character required in the Guardians--Mildness at home with pugnacity against enemies 23
Peculiar education necessary, musical as well as gymnastical 23
Musical education, by fictions as well as by truth. Fictions addressed to the young: the religious legends now circulating are often pernicious: censorship necessary 24
Orthodox type to be laid down: all poets are required to conform their legends to it. The Gods are causes of nothing but good: therefore they are causes of few things. Great preponderance of actual evil ib.
The Guardians must not fear death. No terrible descriptions of Hades must be presented to them: no intense sorrow, nor violent nor sensual passion, must be recounted either of Gods or Heroes 25
Type for all narratives respecting men 26
Style of narratives. The poet must not practise variety of imitation: he must not speak in the name of bad characters ib.
Rhythm and Melody regulated. None but simple and grave music allowed: only the Dorian and Phrygian moods, with the lyre and harp ib.
Effect of musical training of the mind--makes youth love the Beautiful and hate the Ugly 27
Training of the body--simple and sober. No refined medical art allowed. Wounds or temporary ailments treated; but sickly frames cannot be kept alive 28
Value of Gymnastic in imparting courage to the mind--Gymnastic and Music necessary to correct each other 29
Out of the Guardians a few of the very best must be chosen as Elders or Rulers--highly educated and severely tested ib.
Fundamental creed required to be planted in the minds of all the citizens respecting their breed and relationship 30
How is such a fiction to be accredited in the first instance? Difficulty extreme, of first beginning; but if once accredited, it will easily transmit itself by tradition 31
Guardians to reside in barracks and mess together; to have no private property or home; to be maintained by contribution from the people 32
If the Guardians fail in these precautions, and acquire private interests, the city will be ruined 32
Complete unity of the city, every man performing his own special function 33
The maintenance of the city depends upon that of the habits, character, and education of the Guardians 34
Religious legislation--Consult the Delphian Apollo ib.
The city is now constituted as a good city--that is, wise, courageous, temperate, just. Where is its Justice? ib.
First, where is the wisdom of the city? It resides in the few elder Rulers ib.
Where is the Courage? In the body of Guardians or Soldiers 35
Where is the Temperance? It resides in all and each, Rulers, Guardians, and People. Superiors rule and Inferiors obey ib.
Where is the Justice? In all and each of them also. It consists in each performing his own special function, and not meddling with the function of the others 36
Injustice arises when any one part of the city interferes with the functions of the other part, or undertakes double functions 37
Analogy of the city to the individual--Each man is tripartite, having in his mind Reason, Energy, Appetite. These three elements are distinct, and often conflicting ib.
Reason, Energy, Appetite, in the individual--analogous to Rulers, Guardians, Craftsmen in the city. Reason is to rule Appetite. Energy assists Reason in ruling it 39
A man is just when these different parts of his mind exercise their appropriate functions without hindrance ib.
Justice and Injustice in the mind--what health and disease are in the body 40
Original question now resumed--Does Justice make a man happy, and Injustice make him miserable, apart from all consequences? Answer--Yes ib.
Glaukon requires farther explanation about the condition of the Guardians, in regard to sexual and family ties 41
Men and women will live together and perform the duties of Guardians alike--They will receive the same gymnastic and musical training 41
Nature does not prescribe any distribution of functions between men and women. Women are inferior to men in every thing. The best women are equal to second-best men 42
Community of life and relations between the male and female Guardians. Temporary marriages arranged by contrivance of the Elders. No separate families ib.
Regulations about age, for procreation--Children brought up under public authority 44
Perfect communion of sentiment and interest among the Guardians--Causes of pleasure and pain the same to all, like parts of the same organism ib.
Harmony--absence of conflicting interest--assured scale of equal comfort--consequent happiness--among the Guardians 45
In case of war both sexes will go together to battle--Rewards to distinguished warriors 46
War against Hellenic enemies to be carried on mildly--Hellens are all by nature kinsmen 47
Question--How is the scheme practicable? It is difficult, yet practicable on one condition--That philosophy and political power should come into the same hands ib.
Characteristic marks of the philosopher--He contemplates and knows Entia or unchangeable Forms, as distinguished from fluctuating particulars or Fientia 48
Ens alone can be known--Non-Ens is unknowable. That which is midway between Ens and Non-Ens (particulars) is matter only of opinion. Ordinary men attain nothing beyond opinion 49
Particulars fluctuate: they are sometimes just or beautiful, sometimes unjust or ugly. Forms or Entia alone remain constant 50
The many cannot discern or admit the reality of Forms--Their minds are always fluctuating among particulars 51
The philosopher will be ardent for all varieties of knowledge--His excellent moral attributes--He will be trained to capacity for active life ib.
Adeimantus does not dispute the conclusion, but remarks that it is at variance with actual facts--Existing philosophers are either worthless pretenders, or when they are good, useless 52
Sokrates admits the fact to be so--His simile of the able steersman on shipboard, among a disobedient crew 53
The uselessness of the true philosopher is the fault of the citizen, who will not invoke his guidance 54
The great qualities required to form a philosopher, become sources of perversion, under a misguiding public opinion ib.
Mistake of supposing that such perversion arises from the Sophists. Irresistible effect of the public opinion generally, in tempting or forcing a dissenter into orthodoxy 55
The Sophists and other private teachers accept the prevalent orthodoxy, and conform their teaching to it 56
The people generally hate philosophy--A youth who aspires to it will be hated by the people, and persecuted even by his own relatives 57
The really great minds are thus driven away from the path of philosophy--which is left to empty pretenders 58
Rare cases in which a highly qualified philosopher remains--Being at variance with public opinion, he can achieve nothing, and is lucky if he can obtain safety by silence ib.
The philosopher must have a community suitable to him, and worthy of him 59
It must be such a community as Sokrates has been describing--But means must be taken to keep up a perpetual succession of philosophers as Rulers 60
Proper manner of teaching philosophy--Not to begin at a very early age ib.
If the multitude could once see a real, perfect, philosopher, they could not fail to love him: but this never happens 61
Course of training in the Platonic city, for imparting philosophy to the Rulers. They must be taught to ascend to the Idea of Good. But what is Good? ib.
Ancient disputes upon this point, though every one yearns after Good. Some say Intelligence; some say Pleasure. Neither is satisfactory 62
Adeimantus asks what Sokrates says. Sokrates says that he can not answer: but he compares it by a metaphor to the Sun 63
The Idea of Good rules the ideal or intelligible world, as the Sun rules the sensible or visible world 64
To the intelligible world there are applicable two distinct modes of procedure--the Geometrical--the Dialectic. Geometrical procedure assumes diagrams 65
Dialectic procedure assumes nothing. It departs from the highest Form, and steps gradually down to the lowest, without meddling with any thing except Forms 66
Two distinct grades of Cognition--Direct or Superior--Nous--Indirect or Inferior--Dianoia ib.
Two distinct grades of Opinion also in the Sensible World--Faith or Belief--Conjecture 67
Distinction between the philosopher and the unphilosophical public, illustrated by the simile of the Cave, and the captives imprisoned therein ib.
Daylight of philosophy contrasted with the firelight and shadows of the Cave 69
Purpose of a philosophical training, to turn a man round from facing the bad light of the Cave to face the daylight of philosophy, and to see the eternal Forms ib.
Those who have emerged from the Cave into full daylight amidst eternal Forms, must be forced to come down again and undertake active duties--Their reluctance to do this 70
Studies serving as introduction to philosophy--Arithmetic, its awakening power--shock to the mind by felt contradiction ib.
Perplexity arising from the One and Many, stimulates the mind to an intellectual effort for clearing it up 72
Geometry conducts the mind to wards Universal Ens ib.
Astronomy--how useful--not useful as now taught--must be studied by ideal figures, not by observation 73
Acoustics, in like manner--The student will be thus conducted to the highest of all studies--Dialectic: and to the region of pure intelligible Forms 74
Question by Glaukon--What is the Dialectic Power? Sokrates declares that he cannot answer with certainty, and that Glaukon could not follow him if he did 75
He answers partially--It is the consummation of all the sciences, raising the student to the contemplation of pure Forms, and especially to that of the highest Form--Good ib.
The Synoptic view peculiar to the Dialectician 76
Scale and duration of various studies for the Guardians, from youth upwards ib.
All these studies, and this education, are common to females as well as males 77
First formation of the Platonic city--how brought about: difficult, but not impossible 78
The city thus formed will last long, but not for ever. After a certain time, it will begin to degenerate. Stages of its degeneracy ib.
1. Timocracy and the timocratical individual. 2 Oligarchy, and the oligarchical individual 79
3. Democracy, and the democratical individual 80
4. Passage from democracy to despotism. Character of the despotic city 81
Despotic individual corresponding to that city 82
The city has thus passed by four stages, from best to worse. Question--How are Happiness and Misery apportioned among them? ib.
Misery of the despotised city 83
Supreme Misery of the despotising individual ib.
Conclusion--The Model city and the individual corresponding to it, are the happiest of all--That which is farthest removed from it, is the most miserable of all 84
The Just Man is happy in and through his Justice, however he may be treated by others. The Unjust Man, miserable 84
Other arguments proving the same conclusion--Pleasures of Intelligence are the best of all pleasures ib.
They are the only pleasures completely true and pure. Comparison of pleasure and pain with neutrality. Prevalent illusions 86
Most men know nothing of true and pure pleasure. Simile of the Kosmos--Absolute height and depth 87
Nourishment of the mind partakes more of real essence than nourishment of the body--Replenishment of the mind imparts fuller pleasure than replenishment of the body 88
Comparative worthlessness of the pleasures of Appetite and Ambition, when measured against those of Intelligence 89
The Just Man will be happy from his justice--He will look only to the good order of his own mind--He will stand aloof from public affairs, in cities as now constituted 90
Tenth Book--Censure of the poets is renewed--Mischiefs of imitation generally, as deceptive--Imitation from imitation 91
Censure of Homer--He is falsely extolled as educator of the Hellenic world. He and other poets only deceive their hearers 92
The poet chiefly appeals to emotions--Mischiefs of such eloquent appeals, as disturbing the rational government of the mind ib.
Ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry--Plato fights for philosophy, though his feelings are strongly enlisted for poetry 93
Immortality of the soul affirmed and sustained by argument--Total number of souls always the same ib.
Recapitulation--The Just Man will be happy, both from his justice and from its consequences, both here and hereafter 94
CHAPTER XXXVI.
REPUBLIC--REMARKS ON ITS MAIN THESIS.
Summary of the preceding chapter 95
Title of the Republic, of ancient date, but only a partial indication of its contents 96
Parallelism between the Commonwealth and the Individual 96
Each of them a whole, composed of parts distinct in function and unequal in merit 97
End proposed by Plato. Happiness of the Commonwealth. Happiness of the individual. Conditions of happiness 98
Peculiar view of Justice taken by Plato 99
Pleadings of Glaukon and Adeimantus ib.
The arguments which they enforce were not invented by the Sophists, but were the received views anterior to Plato 100
Argument of Sokrates to refute them. Sentiments in which it originates. Panegyric on Justice 101
Different senses of justice--wider and narrower sense 102
Plato's sense of the word Justice or Virtue--self-regarding 104
He represents the motives to it, as arising from the internal happiness of the just agents 105
His theory departs more widely from the truth than that which he opposes. Argument of Adeimantus discussed 106
A Reciprocity of rights and duties between men in social life--different feelings towards one and towards the other 109
Plato's own theory, respecting the genesis of society, is based on reciprocity 111
Antithesis and correlation of obligation and right. Necessity of keeping the two ideas together, as the basis of any theory respecting society 112
Characteristic feature of the Platonic Commonwealth--specialization of services to that function for which each man is fit--will not apply to one individual separately 114
Plato has not made good his refutation--the thesis which he impugns is true 116
Statement of the real issue between him and his opponents 117
He himself misrepresents this issue--he describes his opponents as enemies of justice ib.
Farther arguments of Plato in support of his thesis. Comparison of three different characters of men 118
His arguments do not go to the point which he professes to aim at 120
Exaggerated parallelism between the Commonwealth and the individual man 121
Second Argument of Plato to prove the happiness of the just man--He now recalls his previous concession, and assumes that the just man will receive just treatment and esteem from others ib.
Dependence of the happiness of the individual on the society in which he is placed 123
Inconsistency of affirming general positions respecting the happiness of the just man, in all societies without distinction 124
Qualified sense in which only this can be done 125
Question--Whether the just man is orthodox or dissenter in his society?--important in discussing whether he is happy 126
Comparison of the position of Sokrates at Athens, with that of his accusers ib.
Imperfect ethical basis on which Plato has conducted the discussion in the Republic 127
Plato in Republic is preacher, inculcating useful beliefs--not philosopher, establishing scientific theory. State of Just and Unjust Man in the Platonic Commonwealth 129
Comparative happiness of the two in actual communities. Plato is dissatisfied with it--This is his motive for recasting society on his own principles 130
Confusion between the preacher and the philosopher in the Platonic Republic 131
Remarks on the contrast between ethical theory and ethical precepts ib.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
REPUBLIC--REMARKS ON THE PLATONIC COMMONWEALTH.
Double purpose of the Platonic Republic--ethical and political 133
Plato recognises the generating principle of human society--reciprocity of need and service. Particular direction which he gives to this principle 133
The four cardinal virtues are assumed as constituting the whole of Good or Virtue, where each of these virtues resides 134
First mention of these, as an exhaustive classification, in ethical theory. Plato effaces the distinction between Temperance and Justice 135
All the four are here assumed as certain and determinate, though in former dialogues they appear indeterminate and full of unsolved difficulties 137
Difficulties left unsolved, but overleaped by Plato 138
Ethical and political theory combined by Plato, treated apart by Aristotle ib.
Platonic Commonwealth--only an outline--partially filled up 139
Absolute rule of a few philosophers--Careful and peculiar training of the Guardians ib.
Comparison of Plato with Xenophon--Cyropædia--OEconomicus 141
Both of them combine polity with education--temporal with spiritual 142
Differences between them--Character of Cyrus ib.
Xenophontic genius for command--Practical training--Sokratic principles applied in Persian training 144
Plato does not build upon an individual hero. Platonic training compared with Xenophontic 146
Platonic type of character compared with Xenophontic, is like the Athenian compared with the Spartan 147
Professional soldiers are the proper modern standard of comparison with the regulations of Plato and Xenophon 148
Music and Gymnastic--multifarious and varied effects of music 149
Great influence of the poets and their works on education ib.
Plato's idea of the purpose which poetry and music ought to serve in education 151
He declares war against most of the traditional and consecrated poetry, as mischievous ib.
Strict limits imposed by Plato on poets 153
His view of the purposes of fiction--little distinction between fiction and truth. His censures upon Homer and the tragedians 154
Type of character prescribed by Plato, to which all poets must conform, in tales about Gods and Heroes 155
Position of Plato as an innovator on the received faith and traditions. Fictions indispensable to the Platonic Commonwealth 156
Difficulty of procuring first admission for fictions. Ease with which they perpetuate themselves after having been once admitted 158
Views entertained by Kritias and others, that the religious doctrines generally believed had originated with law-givers, for useful purposes 159
Main points of dissent between Plato and his countrymen, in respect to religious doctrine 161
Theology of Plato compared with that of Epikurus--Neither of them satisfied the exigencies of a believing religious mind of that day ib.
Plato conceives the Gods according to the exigencies of his own mind--complete discord with those of the popular mind 163
Repugnance of ordinary Athenians in regard to the criticism of Sokrates on the religious legends 165
Aristophanes connects the idea of immorality with the freethinkers and their wicked misinterpretations ib.
Heresies ascribed to Sokrates by his own friends--Unpopularity of his name from this circumstance 168
Restrictions imposed by Plato upon musical modes and reciters ib.
All these restrictions intended for the emotional training of the Guardians 169
Regulations for the life of the Guardians, especially the prohibition of separate property and family ib.
Purpose of Plato in these regulations ib.
Common life, education, drill, collective life, and duties, for Guardians of both sexes. Views of Plato respecting the female character and aptitudes 171
His arguments against the ordinary doctrine 172
Opponents appealed to nature as an authority against Plato. He invokes Nature on his own side against them 173
Collective family relations and denominations among the Guardians 174
Restrictions upon sexual intercourse--Purposes of such restrictions 175
Regulations about marriages and family 176
Procreative powers of individual Guardians required to be held at the disposal of the rulers, for purity of breed 177
Purpose to create an intimate and equal sympathy among all the Guardians, but to prevent exclusive sympathy of particular members 178
Platonic scheme--partial communism 179
Soldiership as a separate profession has acquired greater development in modern times 180
Spartan institutions--great impression which they produced upon speculative Greek minds 181
Plans of these speculative minds compared with Spartan--Different types of character contemplated 182
Plato carries abstraction farther than Xenophon or Aristotle 183
Anxiety shown by Plato for the good treatment of the Demos, greater than that shown by Xenophon and Aristotle ib.
In Aristotle's theory, the Demos are not considered as members of the Commonwealth, but as adjuncts 184
Objection urged by Aristotle against the Platonic Republic, that it will be two cities. Spiritual pride of the Guardians, contempt for the Demos ib.
Plato's scheme fails, mainly because he provides no training for the Demos 186
Principle of Aristotle--That every citizen belongs to the city, not to himself--applied by Plato to women 187
Aristotle declares the Platonic Commonwealth impossible--In what sense this is true 189
The real impossibility of the Platonic Commonwealth, arises from the fact that discordant sentiments are already established 191
Plato has strong feelings of right and wrong about sexual intercourse, but referring to different objects 192
Different sentiment which would grow up in the Platonic Commonwealth respecting the sexual relations 193
What Nature prescribes in regard to the relations of the two sexes--Direct contradiction between Plato and Aristotle 194
Opinion of Plato respecting the capacities of women, and the training proper for women, are maintained in the Leges, as well as in the Republic. Ancient legends harmonising with this opinion 195
In a Commonwealth like the Platonic, the influence of Aphroditê would probably have been reduced to a minimum 197
Other purposes of Plato--limitation of number of Guardians--common to Aristotle also 198
Law of population expounded by Malthus--Three distinct checks to population--alternative open between preventive and positive ib.
Plato and Aristotle saw the same law as Malthus, but arranged the facts under a different point of view 202
Regulations of Plato and Aristotle as to number of births and newborn children ib.
Such regulations disapproved and forbidden by modern sentiment. Variability of ethical sentiment as to objects approved or disapproved 203
Plato and Aristotle required subordination of impulse to reason and duty--they applied this to the procreative impulse, as to others 204
Training of the few select philosophers to act as chiefs 205
Comprehensive curriculum for aspirants to philosophy--consummation by means of Dialectic 206
Valuable remarks on the effects of these preparatory studies 207
Differences between the Republic and other dialogues--no mention of reminiscence nor of the Elenchus ib.
Different view taken by Plato in the Republic about Dialectic--and different place assigned to it 208
Contradiction with the spirit of other dialogues Parmenidês, &c. 209
Contradiction with the character and declarations of Sokrates 210
The remarks here made upon the effect of Dialectic upon youth coincide with the accusation of Melêtus against Sokrates 211
Contrast between the real Sokrates, as a dissenter at Athens, and the Platonic Sokrates, framer and dictator of the Platonic Republic ib.
Idea of Good--The Chiefs alone know what it is--If they did not they would be unfit for their functions 212
What is the Good? Plato does not know; but he requires the Chiefs to know it. Without this the Republic would be a failure 213
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
TIMÆUS AND KRITIAS.
Persons and scheme of the Timæus and Kritias 215
The Timæus is the earliest ancient physical theory, which we possess in the words of its author 216
Position and character of the Pythagorean Timæus ib.
Poetical imagination displayed by Plato. He pretends to nothing more than probability. Contrast with Sokrates, Isokrates, Xenophon 217
Fundamental distinction between Ens and Fientia 219
Postulates of Plato. The Demiurgus--The Eternal Ideas--Chaotic Materia or Fundamentum. The Kosmos is a living being and a God 220
The Demiurgus not a Creator--The Kosmos arises from his operating upon the random movements of Necessity. He cannot controul necessity--he only persuades ib.
Meaning of Necessity in Plato 221
Process of demiurgic construction--The total Kosmos comes logically first, constructed on the model of the [Greek: Au)tozô=on] 223
Body of the Kosmos, perfectly spherical--its rotations 225
Soul of the Kosmos--its component ingredients--stretched from centre to circumference ib.
Regular or measured Time--began with the Kosmos 227
Divine tenants of the Kosmos. Primary and Visible Gods--Stars and Heavenly Bodies 229
Secondary and generated Gods--Plato's dictum respecting them. His acquiescence in tradition 230
Remarks on Plato's Canon of Belief 231
Address and order of the Demiurgus to the generated Gods 233
Preparations for the construction of man. Conjunction of three souls and one body ib.
Proceedings of the generated Gods--they fabricate the cranium, as miniature of the Kosmos, with the rational soul rotating within it 235
The cranium is mounted on a tall body--six varieties of motion--organs of sense. Vision--Light 236
Principal advantages of sight and hearing. Observations of the rotation of the Kosmos 237
The Kosmos is product of joint action of Reason and Necessity. The four visible and tangible elements are not primitive 238
Forms or Ideas and Materia Prima--Forms of the Elements--Place, or Receptivity ib.
Primordial Chaos--Effect of intervention by the Demiurgus 240
Geometrical theory of the elements--fundamental triangles--regular solids ib.
Varieties of each element 242
Construction of man imposed by the Demiurgus upon the secondary Gods. Triple Soul. Distribution thereof in the body 243
Functions of the heart and lungs. Thoracic soul 245
Abdominal Soul--difficulty of controuling it--functions of the liver ib.
The liver is made the seat of the prophetic agency. Function of the spleen 246
Length of the intestinal canal, in order that food might not be frequently needed 247
Bone--Flesh--Marrow ib.
Nails--Mouth--Teeth. Plants produced for nutrition of man 248
General view of Diseases and their Causes 249
Diseases of mind--wickedness is a disease--no man is voluntarily wicked ib.
Badness of mind arises from body 250
Preservative and healing agencies against disease--well-regulated exercise, of mind and body proportionally 250
Treatment proper for mind alone, apart from body--supremacy of the rational soul must be cultivated 251
We must study and understand the rotations of the Kosmos--this is the way to amend the rotations of the rational soul 252
Construction of women, birds, quadrupeds, fishes, &c., all from the degradation of primitive man ib.
Large range of topics introduced in the Timæus 254
The Demiurgus of the Platonic Timæus--how conceived by other philosophers of the same century ib.
Adopted and welcomed by the Alexandrine Jews, as a parallel to the Mosaic Genesis 256
Physiology of the Platonic Timæus--subordinate to Plato's views of ethical teleology. Triple soul--each soul at once material and mental 257
Triplicity of the soul--espoused afterwards by Galen 258
Admiration of Galen for Plato--his agreement with Plato, and his dissension from Plato--his improved physiology 259
Physiology and Pathology of Plato--compared with that of Aristotle and the Hippokratic treatises 260
Contrast between the admiration of Plato for the constructors of the Kosmos, and the defective results which he describes 262
Degeneration of the real tenants of Earth from their primitive type 263
Close of the Timæus. Plato turns away from the shameful results, and reverts to the glorification of the primitive types 264
Kritias: a fragment 265
Prooemium to Timæus. Intended Tetralogy for the Republic. The Kritias was third piece in that Tetralogy ib.
Subject of the Kritias. Solon and the Egyptian priests. Citizens of Platonic Republic are identified with ancient Athenians 266
Plato professes that what he is about to recount is matter of history, recorded by Egyptian priests 268
Description of the vast island of Atlantis and its powerful kings ib.
Corruption and wickedness of the Atlantid people 269
Conjectures as to what the Platonic Kritias would have been--an ethical epic in prose ib.
Plato represents the epic Kritias as matter of recorded history 270
CHAPTER XXXIX.**
LEGES AND EPINOMIS.**
Leges, the longest of Plato's works--Persons of the dialogue 272
Abandonment of Plato's philosophical projects prior to the Leges 273
Untoward circumstances of Plato's later life--His altered tone in regard to philosophy ib.
General comparison of Leges with Plato's earlier works 275
Scene of the Leges, not in Athens, but in Krete. Persons Kretan and Spartan, comparatively illiterate 277
Gymnastic training, military drill, and public mess, in Krete and Sparta 279
Difference between Leges and Republic, illustrated by reference to the Politikus 280
Large proportion of preliminary discussions and didactic exhortation in the Leges 281
Scope of the discussion laid down by the Athenian speaker--The Spartan institutions are framed only for war--This is narrow and erroneous 282
Principles on which the institutions of a state ought to be defended--You must show that its ethical purpose and working is good 284
Religious and ethical character postulated by Plato for a community ib.
Endurance of pain enforced as a part of the public discipline at Sparta 285
Why are not the citizens tested in like manner, in regard to resistance against the seductions of pleasure? ib.
Drunkenness forbidden at Sparta, and blamed by the Spartan converser. The Athenian proceeds to inquire how far such unqualified prohibition is justifiable 286
Description of Sokrates in the Symposion--his self-command under abundant potations 287
Sokrates--an ideal of self-command, both as to pain and as to pleasure 288
Trials for testing the self-controul of the citizen, under the influence of wine. Dionysiac banquets, under a sober president 289
The gifts of Dionysus may, by precautions, be rendered useful--Desultory manner of Plato ib.
Theory of ethical and æsthetical education--Training of the emotions of youth through the influence of the Muses, Apollo, and Dionysus. Choric practice and ceremonies 290
Music and dancing--imitation of the voice and movements of brave and virtuous men. Youth must be taught to take delight in this 291
Bad musical exhibitions and poetry forbidden by the lawgiver. Songs and dances must be consecrated by public authority. Prizes at the musical festivals to be awarded by select judges 292
The Spartan and Kretan agree with the Athenian, that poets must be kept under a strict censorship. But they do not agree as to what the poets are required to conform to ib.
Ethical creed laid down by the Athenian--Poets required to conform to it 294
The Spartan and Kretan do not agree with him 296
Chorus of Elders are required to set an example in keeping up the purity of the music prescribed 297
The Elders require the stimulus of wine, in order to go through the choric duties with spirit ib.
Peculiar views of Plato about intoxication 298
General ethical doctrine held by Plato in Leges 299
Pleasure--Good--Happiness--What is the relation between them? ib.
Comparison of the doctrine laid down in Leges 300
Doctrine in Leges about Pleasure and Good--approximates more nearly to the Protagoras than to Gorgias and Philêbus 301
Comparison of Leges with Republic and Gorgias 302
Plato here mistrusts the goodness of his own proof. He falls back upon useful fiction 303
Deliberate ethical fiction employed as means of governing 304
Importance of music and chorus as an engine of teaching for Plato. Views of Xenophon and Aristotle compared 305
Historical retrospect as to the growth of cities--Frequent destruction of established communities, with only a small remnant left 307
Historical or legendary retrospect--The Trojan war--The return of the Herakleids 308
Difficulties of government--Conflicts about command--Seven distinct titles to command exist among mankind, all equally natural, and liable to conflict 309
Imprudence of founding government upon any one of these titles separately--Governments of Argos and Messênê ruined by the single principle--Sparta avoided it 310
Plato casts Hellenic legend into accordance with his own political theories 311
Persia and Athens compared--Excess of despotism. Excess of liberty 312
Cyrus and Darius--Bad training of sons of kings ib.
Changes for the worse in government of Athens, after the Persian invasion of Greece 313
This change began in music, and the poets introduced new modes of composition--they appealed to the sentiment of the people, and corrupted them 314
Danger of changes in the national music--declared by Damon, the musical teacher 315
Plato's aversion to the tragic and comic poetry at Athens 316
This aversion peculiar to himself, not shared either by oligarchical politicians, or by other philosophers 317
Doctrines of Plato in this prefatory matter 318
Compared with those of the Republic and of the Xenophontic Cyropædia 319
Constructive scheme--Plato's new point of view 320
New Colony to be founded in Krete--its general conditions ib.
The Athenian declares that he will not merely promulgate peremptory laws, but will recommend them to the citizens by prologues or hortatory discourses 321
General character of these prologues--didactic or rhetorical homilies 322
Great value set by Plato himself upon these prologues. They are to serve as type for all poets. No one is allowed to contradict them 323
Contrast of Leges with Gorgias and Phædrus 324
Regulations for the new colony--About religious worship, the oracles of Delphi and Dodona are to be consulted 325
Perpetuity of number of citizens, and of lots of land, one to each, inalienable and indivisible 326
Plato reasserts his adherence to the principle of the Republic, though the repugnance of others hinders him from realising it 327
Regulations about land, successions, marriages, &c. The number of citizens must not be allowed to increase 328
Position of the city and akropolis--Distribution of the territory and citizens into twelve equal sections or tribes 329
Movable property--Inequality therein reluctantly allowed, as far as four to one, but no farther 330
Census of the citizens--four classes, with graduated scale of property. No citizen to possess gold or silver. No loans or interest. No debts enforced by law 331
Board of thirty-seven Nomophylakes--general supervisors of the laws and their execution--how elected 332
Military commanders--General council of 360--complicated mode of election ib.
Character of the electoral scheme--Plato's views about wealth--he caters partly for the oligarchical sentiment, partly for the democratical 333
Meetings of council--other magistrates--Agoranomi--Astynomi, &c. 335
Defence of the territory--rural police--Agronomi, &c. ib.
Comparison with the Lacedæmonian Kryptia 336
Priests--Exêgêtæ--Property belonging to temples 337
Superintendence of Music and Gymnastic. Educational function ib.
Grave duties of the Minister of Education--precautions in electing him 338
Judicial duties 339
Private Causes--how tried ib.
Public Causes must be tried directly by the citizens--strong feeling among Greeks about this 340
Plato's way of meeting this feeling--intermediate inquiry and report by a special Commissioner 340
What laws the magistrates are to enforce--Many details must be left to the Nomophylakes 341
Marriage-Laws--Rich husbands to choose poor wives--No dowries--costly marriage festivals are forbidden 342
Laws about slavery. Slaves to be well fed, and never treated with cruelty or insolence. The master must not converse with them ib.
Circular form for the city--Temples in the centre--No walls round it 344
Mode of life prescribed to new-married couples They are to take the best care about good procreation for the city ib.
Board of superintending matrons 345
Age fixed for marriage. During the first ten years the couple are under obligation to procreate for the city--Restrictions during these ten years ib.
How infants are to be brought up--Nurses--Perpetual regulated movements useful for toning down violent emotions 346
Choric and orchestic movements, their effect in discharging strong emotions 347
Training of boys and girls 348
Musical and literary teaching for youth--Poetry, songs, music, dances, must all be fixed by authority, and never changed--Mischief done by poets aiming to please 349
Boys and girls to learn letters and the lyre, from ten to thirteen years of age. Masters will teach the laws and homilies of the lawgiver, and licensed extracts from the poets 350
The teaching is to be simple, and common to both sexes 351
Rudiments of arithmetic and geometry to be taught 352
Astronomy must be taught, in order that the citizens may not assert libellous falsehoods respecting the heavenly bodies 354
Hunting--how far permitted or advised 355
Large general sense which Plato gives to the word hunting 356
Number of religious sacrifices to be determined by lawgiver 357
Military muster of the whole citizen population once in each month--men, women, and children 358
Gymnastic training must have reference to war, not to athletic prizes 358
Regulation of sexual intercourse. Syssitia or public mess 359
Regulations about landed property--Boundaries--Limited power of fining by magistrates 360
Regulations about artisans--Distribution of the annual landed produce 361
Admission of resident Metics--conditions attached 362
Offences and penal judicature--Procedure of the Dikasts ib.
Sacrilege, the gravest of all crimes. High Treason 363
Theft punished by poena dupli. General exhortation founded by Plato upon this enactment 364
All unjust men are unjust involuntarily.--No such thing as voluntary injustice. Injustice depends upon the temper of the agent--Distinction between damage and injury 365
Damage may be voluntary or involuntary--Injustice is shown often by conferring corrupt profit upon another--Purpose of punishment, to heal the distemper of the criminal ib.
Three distinct causes of misguided proceedings. 1. Painful stimulus. 2. Pleasurable stimulus. 3. Ignorance 366
The unjust man is under the influence either of the first or second of these causes, without controul of Reason. If he acts under controul of Reason, though the Reason be bad, he is not unjust 367
Reasoning of Plato to save his doctrine--That no man commits injustice voluntarily ib.
Peculiar definition of injustice. A man may do great voluntary hurt to others, and yet not be unjust, provided he does it under the influence of Reason, and not of Appetite 368
Plato's purpose in the Laws is to prevent or remedy not only injustice but misconduct 369
Varieties of homicide--modes of dealing with them penally 370
Homicide involuntary--Homicide under provocation ib.
Homicide voluntary 371
Homicide between kinsmen 372
Homicide justifiable--in what cases ib.
Infliction of wounds ib.
Infliction of blows 373
Plato has borrowed much from Attic procedure, especially in regard to Homicide--Peculiar view of Homicide at Athens, as to procedure 374
Impiety or outrage offered to divine things or places 375
All impiety arises from one or other of three heresies. 1. No belief in the Gods. 2. Belief that the Gods interfere very little. 3. Belief that they may be appeased by prayer and sacrifice 376
Punishment for these three heretical beliefs, with or without overt act ib.
Heretic, whose conduct has been virtuous and faultless, to be imprisoned for five years, perhaps more ib.
Heretic with bad conduct--punishment to be inflicted 377
No private worship or religious rites allowed. Every citizen must worship at the public temples ib.
Uncertain and mischievous action of the religious sentiment upon individuals, if not controuled by public authority 378
Intolerant spirit of Plato's legislation respecting uniformity of belief 379
The persons denounced by Plato as heretics, and punished as such, would have included a majority of the Grecian world 381
Proëm or prefatory discourse of Plato, for these severe laws against heretics 383
The third variety of heresy is declared to be the worst--the belief in Gods persuadable by prayer and sacrifice 384
Heretics censured by Plato--Sokrates censured before the Athenian Dikasts 385
Kosmological and Kosmogonical theory announced in Leges 386
Soul--older, more powerful in the universe than Body. Different souls are at work in the universe--the good soul and the bad soul ib.
Plato's argument is unsatisfactory and inconsistent 388
Reverence of Plato for uniform circular rotation 389
Argument of Plato to confute the second class of heretics ib.
Contrary doctrine of Plato in Republic 390
Argument of Plato to refute the third class of heretics 391
General belief in Greece about the efficacy of prayer and sacrifice to appease the Gods 392
Incongruities of Plato's own doctrine 393
Both Herodotus and Sokrates dissented from Plato's doctrine 394
Great opposition which Plato's doctrine would have encountered in Greece 395
Local infallibility was claimed as a rule in each community, though rarely enforced with severity: Plato both claims it more emphatically, and enforces it more rigorously 396
Farther civil and political regulations for the Magnetic community. No evidence that Plato had studied the working of different institutions in practice 397
Modes of acquiring property--legitimate and illegitimate ib.
Plato's general regulations leave little room for disputes about ownership 398
Plato's principles of legislation, not consistent--comparison of them with the Attic law about Eranoi 399
Regulations about slaves, and about freedmen 400
Provisions in case a slave is sold, having a distemper upon him 401
Retailers. Strict regulations about them. No citizen can be a retailer ib.
Frauds committed by sellers--severe punishments on them 402
Comparison with the lighter punishment inflicted by Attic law 403
Regulations about Orphans and Guardians: also about Testamentary powers 404
Plato's general coincidence with Attic law and its sentiment 406
Tutelage of Orphans--Disagreement of Married Couples--Divorce ib.
Neglect of Parents 407
Poison--Magic--Incantations--Severe punishment ib.
Punishment is inflicted with a view to future prevention or amendment 408
Penalty for abusive words--for libellous comedy. Mendicity forbidden 409
Regulations about witnesses on judicial trials ib.
Censure of forensic eloquence, and the teachers of it. Penalties against contentious litigation 410
Many of Plato's laws are discharges of ethical antipathy. The antipathy of Melêtus against Sokrates was of the same character 411
Penalty for abuse of public trust--wrongful appropriation of public money--evasion of military service 412
Oaths. Dikasts, Judges, Electors, are to be sworn: but no parties to a suit, or interested witnesses, can be sworn 413
Regulations about admission of strangers, and foreign travel of citizens 414
Suretyship--Length of prescription for ownership, &c. 415
Judicial trial--three stages. 1. Arbitrators. 2. Tribe-Dikasteries. 3. Select Dikastery ib.
Funerals--proceedings prescribed--expense limited ib.
Conservative organ to keep up the original scheme of the lawgiver. Nocturnal Council for this purpose--how constituted ib.
This Council must keep steadily in view the one great end of the city--Mistakes made by existing cities about the right end 417
The one end of the city is the virtue of its citizens--that property which is common to the four varieties of Virtue--Reason, Courage, Temperance, Justice ib.
The Nocturnal** Council must comprehend this unity of Virtue, explain it to others, and watch that it be carried out in detail 418
They must also adopt, explain, and enforce upon the citizens, an orthodox religious creed. Fundamental dogmas of such creed 419
Leges close, without describing the education proper for the Nocturnal Counsellors. Epinomis supplying this defect 420
The Athenian declares his plan of education--Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy ib.
Theological view of Astronomy--Divine Kosmos--Soul more ancient and more sovereign than Body 421
Improving effects of the study of Astronomy in this spirit 422
Study of arithmetic and geometry: varieties of proportion 423
When the general forms of things have thus been learnt, particular individuals in nature must be brought under them ib.
Question as to education of the Nocturnal Council is answered in the Epinomis 424
Problem which the Nocturnal Council are required to solve, What is the common property of Prudence, Courage, Temperance, Justice, by reason of which each is called Virtue? 425
The only common property is that all of them are essential to the maintenance of society, and tend to promote human security and happiness ib.
Tendency of the four opposite qualities to lessen human happiness 426
A certain measure of all the four virtues is required. In judging of particular acts instigated by each, there is always a tacit reference to the hurt or benefit in the special case ib.
Plato places these four virtues in the highest scale of Expetenda or Bona, on the ground that all the other Bona are sure to flow from them 428
In thus directing the attention of the Council to the common property of the four virtues, Plato enforces upon them the necessity of looking to the security and happiness of their community as the paramount end 429
But he enjoins also other objectionable ends ib.
Intolerance of Plato--Comparison of the Platonic community with Athens ib.
PLATO.
CHAPTER XXXV.
PLATONIC REPUBLIC--ABSTRACT.
The Republic is the longest of all the Platonic dialogues, except the dialogue De Legibus. It consists of ten books, each of them as long as any one of the dialogues which we have passed in review. Partly from its length--partly from its lofty pretensions as the great constructive work of Plato--I shall give little more than an abstract of it in the present chapter, and shall reserve remark and comment for the succeeding.
[Side-note: Declared theme of the Republic--Expansion and multiplication of the topics connected with it.]
The professed subject is--What is Justice? Is the just man happy in or by reason of his justice? whatever consequences may befall him? Is the unjust man unhappy by reason of his injustice? But the ground actually travelled over by Sokrates, from whose mouth the exposition proceeds, is far more extensive than could have been anticipated from this announced problem. An immense variety of topics, belonging to man and society, is adverted to more or less fully. A theory of psychology or phrenology generally, is laid down and advocated: likewise a theory of the Intellect, distributed into its two branches: 1. Science, with the Platonic Forms or Ideas as Realities corresponding to it; 2. Opinion, with the fluctuating semi-realities or pseudo-realities, which form its object. A sovereign rule, exercised by philosophy, is asserted as indispensable to human happiness. The fundamental conditions of a good society, as Plato conceived it, are set forth at considerable length, and contrasted with the social corruptions of various existing forms of government. The outline of a perfect education, intellectual and emotional, is drawn up and prescribed for the ruling class: with many accompanying remarks on the objectionable tendencies of the popular and consecrated poems. The post-existence, as well as the pre-existence of the soul, is affirmed in the concluding books. As the result of the whole, Plato emphatically proclaims his conviction, that the just man is happy in and through his justice, quite apart from all consideration of consequences--yet that the consequences also will be such as to add to his happiness, both during life as well as after death: and the unjust man unhappy in and through his injustice.[1]
[Footnote 1: Plat. Repub. i. pp. 328 A, 350 D, 354 A.]
[Side-note: Personages of the dialogue.]
The dramatic introduction of the dialogue (which is described as held during the summer, immediately after the festival of the Bendideia in Peiræus), with the picture of the aged Kephalus and his views upon old age, is among the richest and most spirited in the Platonic works: but the discussion does not properly begin until Kephalus retires, leaving it to be carried on by Sokrates with Polemarchus, Glaukon, Adeimantus, and Thrasymachus.
[Side-note: Views of Kephalus about old age.]
"Old age has its advantages to reasonable men (says Kephalus). If I have lost the pleasures of youth, I have at the same time lost the violent desires which then overmastered me. I now enjoy tranquillity and peace. Without doubt, this is in part owing to my wealth. But the best that wealth does for me is, that it enables me to make compensation for deceptions and injustice, practised on other men in my younger days--and to fulfil all vows made to the Gods. An old man who is too poor to render such atonement for past falsehood and injustice, becomes uneasy in his mind as death approaches; he begins to fear that the stories about Hades, which he has heard and ridiculed in his youth, may perhaps prove true."[2]
[Footnote 2: Plato, Repub. i. pp. 330-331.
Compare the language of Cato, more rhetorical and exaggerated than that of Kephalus, in Cic. De Senect. c. 13-14.]
[Side-note: Definition of Justice by Simonides--It consists in rendering to every man what is owing to him.]
"Is that your explanation of justice (asks Sokrates): that it consists in telling truth, and rendering to every one what you have had from him?" The old man Kephalus here withdraws; Polemarchus and the others prosecute the discussion. "The poet Simonides (says Polemarchus) gives an explanation like to that which you have stated--when he affirms, That just dealing consists in rendering to every man what is owing to him."
[Side-note: Objections to it by Sokrates--There are cases in which it is not right to restore what is owing, or to tell the truth.]
"I do not know what Simonides means," replies Sokrates. "He cannot mean that it is always right to tell the truth, or always right to give back a deposit. If my friend, having deposited arms with me, afterwards goes mad, and in that state demands them back, it would not be right in me either to restore the arms, or to tell the truth, to a man in that condition. Therefore to say that justice consists in speaking truth and in giving back what we have received, cannot be a good definition."[3]
[Footnote 3: Plato, Repub. i. p. 331 C-D.
The historical Sokrates argues in the same manner (in the Memorabilia of Xenophon. See his conversation with Euthydemus, iv. 2; and Cicero, De Offic. iii. 25, 94-95).]
Polemarchus here gives a peculiar meaning to the phrase of Simonides: a man owes good to his friends--evil to his enemies: and he ought to pay back both. Upon this Sokrates comments.[4]
[Footnote 4: Sokrates here remarks that the precepts--Speak truth; Restore what has been confided to you--ought not to be considered as universally binding. Sometimes justice, or those higher grounds upon which the rules of justice are founded, prescribe that we should disobey the precepts. Sokrates takes this for granted, as a matter which no one will dispute; and it is evident that what Plato had here in his mind was, the obvious consideration that to tell the truth or restore a weapon deposited, to one who had gone mad, would do no good to any one, and might do immense mischief: thus showing that general utility is both the foundation and the limiting principle of all precepts respecting just and unjust. That this is present to the mind of Plato appears evident from his assuming the position as a matter of course; it is moreover Sokratic, as we see by the Memorabilia of Xenophon.